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Strategy of Islamic Cultural Action in the West Adopted at the Ninth Islamic Summit Conference held in Doha – State of Qatar, 2000
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Chapter Six : The Socio-cultural Condition of Muslim Communities in Europe Preamble The preparation of this part, which deals with the social and cultural conditions of the Muslim communities in the West, has been characterized by three fundamental elements : - Backgrounds - Referentiality - Approaches With regard to the backgrounds, the following have been taken into account : 1. The strategy should reflect the specificity of the current reality of the communities, that is the dimensions of self and cultural identity, but without ignoring the spiritual, moral dimension , which remains a prospective objective. 2. A strategy should be laid down for dialogue, peaceful coexistence and persuasion instead of confrontation. 3. Prospective strategic principles bearing a far-reaching vision should be laid down. With regard to referentiality, the following have been taken into account : 1. The use of Islamic references as a methodology of analysis, i.e. adopting the Islamic perspective in dealing with the conditions of Muslim communities in the West. 2. The use of the final reports and recommendations emanating from the meetings of experts and heads of Islamic Cultural Centers in the West, particularly the reports of the meetings held in Chateau Chinon (1993), Madrid (1996) and Brussels (1997). 3. Making reference to the research studies undertaken by Muslim scholars to diagnose the reality of Islam and Muslims in the West and in non-Islamic environments. 4. Perusing reliable and objective sociological studies undertaken by Muslims and non-Muslims regarding the phenomenon of Islamic immigration in the West, its problems and fundamental issues . The methodological approaches which have been used can be summarized as follows : 1. Tracking the Islamic presence in the West in terms of its history, its manifestations and interactions within Western communities presently and in the future. 2. Taking into consideration the specifics of the Islamic presence in the West and those of the Islamic cultural scenario (the problems of socialization of the new generations, the attempts of coercive integration, cultural identity crisis and the loss of contact with the authentic Islamic referentiality). 3. Taking into consideration the diversity of the following elements : - Issues and concerns of Muslims, - European countries, - Dimensions of problems, - Country of origin, - Language, - Culture, - School education, - Challenges in host countries. 4. Taking into consideration the new reality of Western countries which have become culturally, religiously and ethnically pluralistic, together with the new dynamism resulting thereof. 5. Analyzing the various Western discourses about Islam and uncovering their background, referentiality and latent goals, whether the discourse in question is academic orientalist, sociological, media-driven, political or religious. 6. Taking into consideration the cultural penetration dictated by the now encroaching cultural globalization and the conditions for the preservation of the cultural and religious identity of Muslims living in a non-Islamic environment. 7. Taking into account the reality of secularism in Western societies, which means the separation of religion and state, but in the meantime it allows for the free practice of religion. This explains the strong presence of religion in those societies, a situation which Islam would benefit from. 8. Specifying the factors which have enhanced the awareness of the importance of Islam in the West and its role as a cultural and spiritual choice, and as a work methodology to deal with contemporary intellectual challenges, attempting to put forward the relevant elements and procedures capable of guiding the blessed Islamic awakening, and correcting the image of Islam by ridding it of infelicities. The gap between Islam and the West, therefore, would not widen. 9. Conjuring up future prospects and getting inspired by some principles for the careful handling of the current Islamic awakening, strengthening the presence of Islam in the West and activating the role of Islamic culture in safeguarding and immunizing Islamic identity. I. A Diagnosis of the Current Situation 1. The Islamic presence in the West : The contact between Islam and the West is deep-seated in history. But this contact has been characterized by two different phases : one of which was marked by dialogue and cooperation, while the other was characterized by confrontation, often leading to a breakup-manifest or latent. However, the strong desire to westernize the world often led to endeavors to conquer and dominate, which actually resulted in the colonization of most Muslim countries. Thus, the "Muslim world witnessed a hegemonic experience that humanity had ever experienced, lasting over a century and a half. It was the experience of colonization inflicted upon the Muslim world …. This coincided with the intensification of Western hegemony, as the western desire to conquer and dominate reached a level unprecedented in human history."(1) It should be noted here ,however, that the presence of Islam in the West in the twentieth century, particularly after the Second World War, has some characteristics exceeding even those attributed to such phenomena as world population and immigration that have marked the twentieth century. Considering the peculiarities of the social status of the Muslims who immigrated to Europe, one will find out that the overwhelming majority are unskilled laborers coming from rural areas in search of work in a Europe devastated by the Second World War. And referring to the specifics of the historical period during which these migrations towards the West occurred (postcolonial, cold war, technological progress, and later the emergence of a learned society together with information and computer technology revolution), one will notice that it is quite natural that the settlement and demographic expansion of Muslim communities in non-Muslim environments would lead to new, various problems not previously raised within the relations between the immigrant minorities and the host communities. While diversification characterizes the nationality of the communities immigrating from North Africa, the Middle East and Central and Western Asia, the common link between them is Islam, which has become the kernel element unifying all the Muslim communities in the West. In fact, this would be sufficient enough to make some parties feel uncomfortable and suspicious. Though the presence of Islam in the West was meant to contribute to economic reconstruction after the Second World War, rather than to conquer, it is now unfairly accused, questioned and suspected. As a matter of fact, in all its contacts with Islam, the West has never seized the opportunity to get to know this religion in its original purity. It has not discovered it even through the works of the orientalists who mostly presented a distorted image of Islam.(2) The West has not discovered Islam either when it conquered Muslim countries during the period of colonization, because the superiority complex prevented it from doing so. But now we notice the recurrence of the same situation, which lies in the West's inability to understand the reality of Islam through its contact with the Muslim communities settled in the West. This can be attributed to several reasons, some of which emanate from the communities themselves, while the others relate to the residues of the civilizational and cultural conflict, which characterizes the current era of the Islamic presence in the West. 2. The settlement of the Muslim communities in the West The year 1974, during which immigration was regulated for the first time, represents a turning point in the history of immigration towards Europe. The refusal of Europe to accept new immigrants coincided with the decision of old immigrants not to return home. For some, the idea of returning became a dream hard to fulfill. The legislators who wanted to stop the flow of immigrants had to deal with an unexpected situation. The early immigrants became settlers who aspired to permanent residency.(3) This position was supported by the right to family regrouping, the emergence of the second and third generations who, though never immigrated, suffer from acute alienation. France, Belgium, Germany, Holland, Spain, Great Britain, and Scandinavian countries are among the European countries in which immigration has become a visible phenomenon. However small the Muslim communities might appear, when compared to the original inhabitants, they "become, indeed, a large minority"(4) characterized by its adhesion to Islam and its original culture. As a result of the economic crisis and the spread of unemployment,together with the size of families due to the high birth rate, most Muslim communities live in modest and isolated neighborhoods in shabby houses, too small to cater for their needs. In reality, we do not have any official accurate statistics regarding the number of Muslims living in Europe, but we find large discrepancies in the statistics provided by various researchers. There are four speculations : the first puts the number at 16 million, the second 26 million, the third 33 million, and the fourth estimates that Muslims represent 6.2% of the total West European population.(5) The reason for this wide statistical discrepancy might be ascribed to the fact that some include the Muslims of Eastern Europe and the western part of the former Soviet Union among the Muslims of Europe, while others exclude them. At any rate, some researchers estimate the number of Muslims living in Western Europe around 9 million, concentrated in six countries. The highest concentration of Muslims in France, where the rate exceeds 5%; whereas in the other five countries the rate of Muslims exceeds 2% of the population. As for some north European countries, like Sweden, Denmark and Norway, the rate of the Muslim population reaches around 1%, and the same is true for Switzerland. In some south European countries such as Italy, Spain and Portugal, the total Muslim population does not exceed 700.000.(5) Nevertheless, the current available estimations make us confer with the findings of many Islamic immigration researches which indicate that Islam has become the second strongest religion in Europe after Christianity.(7) The conclusion ,that can be drawn from these demographic facts is that they exceed the limited quantitative dimensions, indicating more significant dimensions of the Islamic presence in the West. Specifically, Muslims now constitute an essential element in the demographic structure of Europe by virtue of their residence and integration in the economic and social fabric of Europe. Everybody is now convinced of the fact that Islam has become a visible phenomenon in Europe and a reality that cannot be ignored in the European society. Some have even started considering Islam to be so firmly grounded in Europe that it can never be uprooted. The demographic constituents of Europe, its general characteristics and the specifics of its peoples will change and become subject to restructuring into a multi-ethnic and multi-cultural society. Thereby, Europe will no longer remain that harmonious and monolithic society constituted on the basis of a specific historical, economic, social and cultural lineage. It will, in itself, turn into a multi-ethnic, multi-cultural and multi-religious society. While this is a new event for Europe, which explains its concern with the phenomenon of immigration at the level of European institutions and individual countries, it is also a unique event for Islam and the Islamic world. The latter has to attach importance to the presence of Islam in the West in terms of research and the delineation of the purposes of defining true Islam, which is far from extremism and violence. The Islamic world should also work towards achieving the purposes of Muslim coexistence with others and reflecting the good nature of Islam. In fact, this urge will become pressing if we take into account that the Muslims resident in Europe, in general, has a poor educational and training profile, and they, therefore, badly needs the support and protection of the Muslim world and its cultural institutions, for him to play his civilizational role in a non-Islamic environment. 3. The socio-cultural conditions of communities As mentioned earlier, the Muslim communities settled in an environment that was not prepared to assimilate the social phenomenon called immigration, in its dimensions and contents. But the immigrants themselves were not prepared intellectually and spiritually to assimilate those transformations and cope with them for the purpose of a better cooperation with their social and cultural environment. Some of the reasons behind this situation are as follows : - The rural origins of the immigrants: most of them moved from an agrarian to an industrial type of relations, in an abrupt way, and without any transit not even through urban life in the country of origin, and without there being any psychological preparation to accept those transformations. - The existence of illiteracy among the immigrants. - The infatuation with some of the attractive aspects of Western civilization. - The material quest, the emphasis on which led to the ignorance of many other concerns : educational, social, religious, etc. - The adherence to beliefs which does not necessarily correspond to the true basics of Islam.(8) - The adherence to practices and traditions inherited from rural life in the country of origin, and the first generation lived by these traditions and tried to pass them on to the children. Although these traditions, through time, underwent major changes in the country of origin itself, the immigrants clang to them in their initial version. - The adoption of mostly invalid patriarchal values in which the father has absolute power and the members of the family respect him. These values, however, often clashed with reality. The illiterate father who lacks the means of communication with the outside world cannot perform the power he desires. He will be obliged to request his children's assistance. Thus, the father is no longer the one who prepares the children to deal with the outside world; on the contrary, it is the children who perform this role.(9) This has become a source of worry for both parents and children and created a chasm between them. - The absence of communication among the generations resident in the West : while the first generation suffered from the handicaps of language, knowledge and spirituality, which caused a great confusion in educational relationships with the second and third generations, the problem is not limited to the absence of internal communication among those generations. Rather, it exceeded it to the absence of communication with the outside world as well. Each generation has its typical problems with its environment. It is thus that the first generation's preoccupation is to acquire money, the second is characterized by intransigence and violence, while deviance is a common trait among the third generation. - The absence of a common vision among the Muslim communities and the absence of the necessary coordination to achieve the common goals at the educational, social and religious levels, and the domination of differences which relate to the diversity of national origin (Turks, Indians, Pakistanis, Arabs). Muslims also suffer from the variety of parties which attract them : "The Muslim is required to adhere to his creed, his country of origin, the country of residence, his school of fiqh and his local community. The diversity of these affiliations - civilizational, international, regional, organizational and cultural - contributes to the intensity of attractions on the part of the attracting parties, especially those which have a regional and organizational nature and which always require the Muslim to devote it more allegiance than the others”(10). This situation grew as a result of the emergence of movements which aspire to create disharmony, and to the absence, among Muslim communities, of a conscious and committed leadership which puts the interest of Islam and its reputation above other interests. Some members of the community adopt positions and reveal behavior which distort the image of Islam, and Islam disclaims responsibility for the deviant behavior of some of its adherents. 3.1 The social field It is very important to stress the social dimension in the strategy of Islamic cultural action in Europe, taking into account the conditions of the Muslim community there, the development it witnesses in its nature, structure and specifics, and the ongoing development of the West. This requires the questioning of the developments and their implications for the Muslim community. Therefore, those adopting this strategy have to bear in mind the following observations : - The compound and special nature of the Muslim community in Europe, its history, size and constituents. - The Muslim community is no longer a mere party of immigrants, but has become settled and is a fundamental constituent of the European society. - The spread and increase of the Muslim population across Central and Western Europe. - The diversification of this community in terms of country of origin, language, culture and the degree of education. - The geographical distribution of the Muslim community in Europe despite density in some centralized cities and areas. - The preponderance of youth in this community compared to the European societies as a whole. - The limited social coverage given to the Muslim community over the decades marking its presence in Europe. - The deterioration of the social conditions of the members of the Muslim community in general and their need for urgent and efficient guidance at the social level(11). In this context, attention should be drawn to the fundamental facts appertaining to the nature of the social problems and their challenges. These problems, which should be considered interrelated, concern the family, women, children, youth and the social institutions, and openness to the social environment. All of these relate to the same phenomenon which requires the drawing up of a general plan for reform and, as a result, openness to a comprehensive perception enabling a clear vision. From a methodological point of view, we can out line the aspects of these problems in terms of the following : - The difficulties at the level of the family and their relation to personal statutes as well as the struggles within the families and their living conditions. - The problems of women in relation to their role in the immigrant family and in the social life in Europe together with the implications for the family and children. - The problems of youth in relation to education within the family or at the level of school education, the problem of Islamic identity for the children of the Muslim communities, the loss of youth and the lack of communication among the generations as well as the problem of crime and deviance. - The problems of social institutions in relation to social guidance and services which include social solidarity, which Islam insists on, and the divisions among the Muslims and the effect of these on the relations among the Muslims and on their unification. - The problems of openness vis-à-vis the social environment with regard to issues like integration and its conception, the social, economic and political role of Muslims in Western societies; and the prospects of consolidating the presence of Islam in Europe. These problems should be distinguished in terms of three levels : Level one : This comprises the problems whose nature relates to the formation of the Muslim community, suchas illiteracy, its ability to communicate and coexist with the others and its attitude towards non-Muslims through its own understanding of Islam and the degree of cohesion or disintegration in its structure. Level two : This involves the problems common to the Muslim community and other religious or ethnic minorities, and which might have a link with the immigrant groups from other cultures, such as the ability to cope with the culture of the surrounding environment and integration therein. Level three : This level concerns the problems of the European environment, especially these days, and these are not only limited to the Muslims and the other minorities, but they affect all the other social structures. These include unemployment, marginalisation, discrimination and the difficulty of securing reasonable lodging, the standard of living and the limited social services(12). This categorization discloses the numerous complex social problems compared to the resources available to deal with them at the financial and human level. This also leads us to insist on finding conducive ground for Islamic action, which would help resolve the problems and difficulties encountered by the Muslim community, or at least help alleviate them(13). The family Besides its social role, which is part of human instinct, the family has a moral function which consists of exchange of affection and solidarity to help it perform its various roles which include : - Preserving the human resource which helps increase the number of Muslims as dictated by Islam. - Educating and creating bonds among the members of society, as the family fulfills the educational role society entrusts it with. - Preserving the heritage of society, its values and conventions, and making sure it is respected and transferred to the generations to come. These roles should be emphasized further when dealing with life in the West, where social life is devoid of the Islamic spirit, and the family thus provides the context for the replacement of this absence of Islam from social life(14). The change in Islamic immigration in Europe from an individual pattern to that of the family, and from a temporary to a permanent situation, has had clear effects at several levels. It is not surprising if the immigrant Muslim family and its social and cultural heritage undergo continuous transformations. Naturally, the family will be influenced by this new environment, which itself is subject to change and development, as is revealed in the relationships within the family and among the generations, and in the attitude towards such issues as birth and education, among others. It is quite natural that the settlement of Muslim families in Europe in environments whose institutions were not prepared for this social phenomenon and its implications will result in many problems. These problems vary in terms of intensity and the type of family, its size, financial and cultural status, and include the problem of personal statutes, the relationships among the members of the family, school failure, deviance, and the problem of communication among the generations. These problems are intertwined and, thus, become even more complex. Accordingly, the reality of the Muslim family living abroad, its concerns and problems, should be part of this strategy for three reasons : - The immigrant family reflects the reality of the Muslim community in Europe(15). - Given the transformations the immigrant family has undergone in its specifics, it requires more attention of those concerned with social work, especially when we take into account the disintegration of the family system in the West. - In order to deal with the social problems of the Muslim community, one has to reckon with the family as an essential component of society. There must be some encouraging factors to help the family settle down and achieve balance; and to help it avoid many problems especially in some parts of Europe where the Muslim community is still new. In general, the problems mentioned earlier can be distinguished in terms of two categories : - The first is transient and inevitable but can be resolved. - The second, however, can be avoided by handling it through prevention. These approaches will set the Muslim immigrant family as an example of a unified and efficient family that European society can benefit from. Women All the efforts which might be deployed to deal with the conditions of the Muslim immigrant family will not be fruitful unless the condition of women is taken into consideration. Therefore, the improvement of the condition of women should be given a priority in social thinking, given the links existing between the problems of the family and those of women, which influence each other. The problematic of women's condition is a universal one, and if human society is unable to resolve the problem of the family, it is because of the ignorance of the role and place of women. As a result, human society has deprived women of the very rights that common sense dictates. However, the question of women's condition cannot be discussed per se, but has to be placed within a general framework of reform which considers the freedom of women as part of it. This necessitates men's freedom, first, from the spirit of archaic stagnation passed on from one generation to another, which has led them to favor customs over religion itself. This also requires women to proceed in an appropriate way vis-à-vis current afairs the and the developed contemporary spirit so as to defend their basic rights, instead of concentrating on unproductive side issues(16). Islam has dignified women and addressed them in Shari'a and religion. Women are capable of aspiring to the highest levels of devotion and closeness to God, and Islam has preserved their personality and identity, which they do not lose as a result of marriage. Islam has also allowed them to undertake jobs and general matters such as law-making, religious arbitration and justice in the affairs of the Muslim nation, and has made men and women equal in rights and obligations, in accordance with the Prophet's (Peace Be Upon Him) saying : "Women are men's sisters". Those who undertake the task of dealing with the social problems of Muslim women in Europe should be inspired by the teachings of Islam to elevate women and help them achieve their aims(17). After immigrating to join their husbands, women played leading social roles at various levels. The effect was at the level of family integration within the Muslim community; and as women integrated into the social fabric, such factors as education, life experience and the high demand for femele laborforce pushed women to work in the services, commercial or professional sectors(18). It is also estimated that the spread of education would lead to the creation of further opportunities for women; and this would concretely influence the distribution of roles inside the family, by taking into account their social position in relation to the economic one. These initiatives should be strengthened by those in charge of social work, by educating women and providing them with practical life skills to improve their social condition. There should also be equality between men and women in what concerns laws in accordance with the teachings of Islam; and they should also be given the rights which Islam has guaranteed for them, and these are spiritual, civil, social, economic and legal. The young generation Some of the major problems of the young Muslim immigrant generation relate to education, and consist of the lack of acclimatization with school, such as failure, etc. This problem has been dealt with in Part 3.2 which concern education and teaching as well as the problem of deviance resulting from social disequilibrium. In facing these problems, one should re-emphasize the significant role that the family plays in the social normalization process. The family is the first site for knowledge which provides the child with an intellectual and cultural asset that serves him in life. The young Muslim needs to learn these identity and life values in the family, for the West cannot provide them. The absence of this asset represents a cultural obstacle which adds to the absence of parental strategy in the area of social investment the teaching of children and the building of their future by benefiting from the education opportunities available in European schools. These two factors, among other external ones, cause young people disappointment and failure, at the educational and social levels. School failure, which normally leads to expulsion and marginalization, adds to other problems of failure inside the family or at work, in addition to the conditions of unemployment, poverty and deprivation to intensify the situation of young people descending from immigrants. These live in difficult conditions in which there is a conflict of references and a double function in role model, in education and teaching.(19) These conditions of cultural and social marginalization will have bad consequences, as the youth will have an inclination towards violence and deviance, aspects of social disequilibrium which young people in Europe, in general, suffer from, and which constitute a form of protest or an attempt to assert oneself or retaliate. If this phenomenon of deviance exists among the Muslim youth, then it should be handled with realism and should not be ignored. However, this phenomenon should not be linked to religion or immigration on the basis of its being the result of a general disequilibrium. It should also be considered within its real size without any exaggeration.(21) As mentioned before, among the functions of the family is to unite society by transferring the values and culture of society to the generations through education, which makes one ask: what is the relationship between the Muslim generations in Europe ? Is it a relationship of conflict or communication ? In reality, the Muslim immigrant family has carried with it a social heritage which constitutes the conditions, roles and relationships in a vertical way in which the old generation has "domination" over the younger one. This system, however, is confronted with another system of conditions and relationships based on equality in a linear way in which the position of the individual is distinct, which results in a conflict of attitude and behavior, and in a disequilibrium in the relations on which the structure of the Muslim family is based.(21) This appears mainly in the relations among generations. If the generation gap is a normal, general and universal phenomenon, in this context it takes a different aspect especially as a result of the big gap between the parents and the children in educational and intellectual matters. The father, who is in general illiterate, was brought up in a given social and cultural environment, and represents a specific way of thinking and is not prepared psychologically, mentally or socially to integrate into the new milieu.(22) The children, however, are different; for they were born in Europe, grew up inspired by its customs and values, and have become integrated into it more than their integration in the culture of the parents. They do not usually assimilate or believe in the validity and use of their parent’s culture in a European context. Here, one can see the difficulties which reside in the differences in the conceptions of things and the evaluation of ideas and positions. These difficulties often become more complicated when children reach the age of adolescence to the extent of discord and breakup, which prevents openness and dialog, and as a result communication becomes useless. The absence of the authority of parents in education or, at least, the reduction of its effect in addition to the children's ambiguous attitude towards identity, and the double models and references available to them make them live a psychological struggle. They tend to resolve it either through definitive breakup with the references of the parents or by preserving the contact, but the result of this will be a duality in personality(23). Social work institutions The need for social institutions, which would cater for Muslims' religious, cultural, social and economic requirements, became urgent given that the local political institutions did not consider it or fulfill it, which made Muslims feel responsible to take the initiative themselves.(24) This, in fact, is what many Islamic centers, associations and social work institutions are doing. They are making considerable efforts and have proven efficient and credible vis-à-vis the immigrants and the authorities in the host countries. It is noticed that these institutions are now able to engage in strong partnership projects with some official European institutions. We even find that these social institutions have become popular inside the civil society, and have contributed to the conversion into Islam of many native citizens. Undoubtedly, the orientation of Islamic social work and the reinforcement of its institutions are capable of strengthening Islam, implanting it and giving it a bright and positive image.(25) Certainly, this work coheres with the foundations of the Islamic society which is based on social solidarity, cooperation among the members of society. This guarantees the interest of both the individual and society, makes them feel secure and stable, and helps reinforce the bonds of Islamic brotherhood among the immigrants. It should be noted here that, in some areas, Muslims are torn by the various parties which lure them, a situation which causes confusion in their relations. The diversity of civilizational, regional, organizational and cultural belongings intensifies these influences and requires the Muslim to express sincere allegiance to a movement or organization. One of the facets of these influences is the disagreement among immigrant Muslims in matters that normally should not be subject to disagreement, such as the timing of religious ceremonies and the controversies over decrees and law-making. This causes the aversion of many and gives a negative image of Islam,(26) although Islam has asked Muslims to be a united nation. In fact, many steps have been taken to unify Muslims, but these attempts have failed because unification could not only be achieved at the level of multinational Islamic organizations, but also inside the community whose national origin is the same.(27) To deal with the question of Islam in Europe in a positive way requires harmony in the structure of Islam to facilitate dealing with it in accordance with the programs and social and educational policies concerned with the problems of Muslim immigrants. This situation requires the return to the collective memory and unification of Islamic awareness in Europe. In other words, this requires an Islamic awakening in which the social institutions play an important role. One of these institutions is the mosque which, besides its spiritual role, is in reality a place for gathering where people meet to deal with the problems they face, and is a cultural forum to discuss their secular and religious concerns. However, the reality is different as the mosques are, in majority, small worship places which lack the necessary conditions and the efficient orientation to play its role fully in orienting and uniting Muslim immigrants.(28) Openness to the environment The condition of the Muslim immigrants in Europe and its change from temporary to permanent immigration, especially after their families joined them and their children were born in Europe, poses an essential problematic which relates to openness towards the social environment and integration therein. But the meanings of the concepts of integration differ depending on the milieus and occasions. Sometimes integration means total absorption of the cultures and their specifics, the immigrants dissolving into the social fabric of these countries. At other times, integration means respecting the laws of the host countries and their conventions, and helping immigrants participate in politics as much as they participate in the economic life and their continued link with the cultures of their countries of origin.(29) It is worth noting here that the language barrier and the deteriorating cultural level, or its complete absence, prevent the immigrants from integrating in the social fabric of Europe(30). But the authorities in the host countries rely on the second and third generation, which are now in the making, to achieve complete integration of the communities. There are also obstacles at the level of political participation, which sometimes reside in the absence of a unique Islamic interlocutor whose representation is accepted by the resident Muslims. Several host countries have tried to find such an interlocutor, but there are difficulties standing in their way, either because of the immigrants themselves or because of the intervention of their countries. The attempts for political action through organizations and established political structures have proven efficient as many Muslims have been able to head some municipalities and supervise them in the countries in which they settle. Muslims have also voted for Muslim members of parliament or those sympathizing with the Muslim community in legislative assemblies. Undoubtedly, this will have a strong effect in making the voices of Muslims heard, in taking into account their religious and cultural requirements, and in integrating them into the social and political fabric of the host countries.(31) It should also be noted here that the Muslim community has distinguished itself in other areas such as science, society and sports; but one notices that the economic field suffers from weak cooperation and bad planning among Muslim businessmen in Europe. This leads to the weakening of the power of political and financial influence,(32) which Muslims should possess. It is also noticed that the lack of unity among Muslim immigrants prevents them from having influential political power on a par with the Muslim or Arab communities in USA. It is worth mentioning here that the mutual aversion referred to above is opposed by mutual influence or integration characterized by : - The integration of Muslim immigrants in the social environment. - Mixed marriage. - The conversion of native citizens to Islam. The mechanism of social orientation, the assemblies and national or local committees have played a major role in the integration of immigrants especially in practical life, given that openness to the local reality has come as a result of a reaction due essentially to the increase in the social and educational needs of the family. Mixed marriage is a phenomenon worthy of attention, as the marriage across different nationalities is increasing, while the rate of marriage within original European nationalities is decreasing. Mixed marriage, especially in the Maghrebian milieu, is on the increase. Though one of its positive manifestations is further contact which facilitates integration, it results in some difficulties of harmony in terms of educational prospects inside the family, especially in cases where one member of the couple is Muslim.(33) It is gratifying to remark in this context that a number of native citizens have embraced Islam under the influence of many factors, such as mixed marriage, visits to Muslim countries, contact with the Muslim community or research and personal effort(34). They, therefore, integrate in the Muslim community in Europe and become receptive to its culture, ethics and tolerant religion. 3.2 Education 1. The condition of Muslim children in Western schools : Undoubtedly, the future of the presence of Islam in the West, its continuity and its efficiency depend essentially on the nature of the social, cultural and economic position Muslims will occupy in Western society and the roles they will play. It is obvious that education is an efficient tool to reach the targeted position and to improve the expected roles. Muslims became aware of this reality earlier and sent their children to European schools to acquire the skills and the required expertise to integrate into their economic and social environment. The West, on its part, has long believed that the school is a convenient place for the assimilation of the children of immigrants and their social and cultural integration. They have, therefore, made sure the school absorb all the children of immigrants, and they trusted the educational tools of the school and its great ability to prepare children socially by imposing the culture and value system of the West. The evaluation of the outcome of the education of the children of Muslim immigrants in the West during recent decades reveals that the final result does not meet the expectations of the West to dissolve their personality, neither does it meet the expectations of the parents to benefit from the knowledge and techniques the school offers with a view to improving social status. The result over two generations is, then, the accumulation of several obstacles and negative phenomena, such as underachievement and the inability to cope with school, which has ultimately led to the school failure of many Muslim immigrants' children in the West. 1.1 The problem of school failure The inability to cope with school is an old phenomenon dating back to the beginning of the education of the children of Muslim immigrants in Europe, due to the inadequacy of the Western schools which receive Muslim children, and their inability to make changes in their educational systems and pedagogical aspects so as to be compatible with the reality of the children of immigrants. The Western school has remained firm in its position, expecting the children of the communities to change their personality and cultural identity, a task that was not as easy as Europeans believed at the beginning. School failure has become a visible aspect of the educational reality of the children of Muslim immigrants. We find that many of them have suffered from underachievement for one or more years, a high proportion of them do not reach secondary education and are mostly oriented towards professional training or short-term technical training to cater for the needs of industry in terms of labor, which helps reproduce the parents'jobs. As for university education, only a very few reach it, and in some academic specializations there is none. School failure is frequently followed by lack of professional qualification, and all the children have is professional experience which does not meet the needs of industry. This renders these young people unable to continue their training programs, and eventually they end up being jobless, a situation which would last for a long time. Following the studies and reports on the condition of the education of the children of Muslim immigrants, the educational authorities in many Western countries set up specialized committees to examine the matter, and experimented on many pedagogical projects aimed at reducing the rate of school failure. But all these attempts have fallen through. The reason for this failure is that these projects were concerned with some procedures and side educational techniques or because of the influence of some secondary factors. The fundamental problematic, however, lies in the school's refusal to adopt a policy of openness towards the culture of Muslim children. This element was absent in all the projects which were tried in the attempt to tackle school failure. In fact, the Western school has been dominated, from the beginning, by the assimilative aspect and the desire to uproot the Muslim child.(35) Thus, the Western school has become a site for cultural struggle. As a result of its cultural power, second generation children have always tried to hide their original culture. It is, therefore, natural for this to lead to a psychological state that would influence the pedagogical activities of children and school life. Any approach to the question of the education of the children of Muslim communities in the West has to rely on a research strategy involving profound and genuine factors, on top of which comes the cultural one. The Western school should open up to the children's culture and give it its due by dealing with it as an asset capable of enriching the educational and cultural aspects of the Western school. 1.2 The role of the family We do not discard the role of the family in the deterioration of the school results of its children, as a result of several interrelated factors, such as the parents' lack of settled residency projects, weak resources, illiteracy, housing condition, lack of orientation and follow-up and weak school culture.However, we feel once again that the need at the level of the family could have been replaced by the school through the reinforcement of programs and the provision of compensatory pedagogy. This, however, does not happen at the official school level. Only very limited attempts emanating from outside the school by some members of the civil society could be noted. The Western school has planned to destroy the unconscious referential structure in the immigrant child through organized destructive strategies of the values he has brought with him from the family and original culture. We, therefore, observe that the school helps institute some form of cultural distance between the child and his parents. We sometimes observe that as long as the child advances in school, he distances himself culturally from the family system and its educational values. In some cases involving girls, the conflict becomes even sharp. In general, the Muslim child remains caught between two parts : one with its glamorous attractions and the other with its source of emotional ties. 2. The reality of the teaching of Arabic and Islamic culture Aware of the necessity to save their youth from loss, assimilation, failure and deviance, the Muslim communities in the West have, through the organizations, Islamic centers and some conscious Islamic leaderships taken the initiative to organize sessions of parallel courses in the Arabic language and Islamic culture. The communities are convinced that the teaching of the language of the Qur’an and Islamic education is a civilizational and religious obligation, and is a means to consolidate Islamic cultural and personal identity and to draw the young generation to the human values of Islam.(36) The initiative of the Islamic cultural centers and organizations, indeed, emanates from its awareness that the second and third generations live in conditions of loss and disintegration. They also fear that they will lose their cultural identity forever, as their knowledge of Arabic starts diminishing, and some of them do not speak it at all. Most of them ignore the fundamental principle of Islam and the basic rules of Islamic education, as a result of the diminishing educational roles of the family, the disintegration of family relations and the diminishing communication among the generations inside the family itself.The pressure of school, society and the media also contributes to such ignorance Statistics indicate that the number of Muslim children in the school age in Western Europe alone is around six to seven million. They were born in Europe and feel they belong to the country in which they were born. In any event, we cannot ignore this Muslim generation; otherwise, it will lose contact with its original culture and identity. To impart the Islamic culture and Arabic language to this generation requires the implementation of an educational strategy which relies on guidance, coordination and working for the sake of Islam in the first place. In Europe, the only countries which officially recognize Islam are Belgium, Austria, Spain and Hungary. With the exception of Austria and Belgium, there is no official religious education for Muslim children in public schools. In Spain, however, Islamic bodies are now putting together Islamic educational curricula to apply them in schools.(37) As for the rest of European countries, their secular regulations prevent them from teaching Islamic education. Also, the school curricula in some of these countries, particularly in what concerns history programs, do not present the real essence of Islam when dealing with some of its historical or civilizational aspects. Also, some countries have tried to experiment with some approaches which allow for some form of openness to the culture of immigrants, especially in what concerns the intercultural side, in the form of a series of educational activities offering space for the original culture of the children of immigrants so that it can express itself inside the school curriculum, including the organization of some sessions for the teaching of the native language and Islamic culture. However, these cultural approaches, despite the anthropological aspect which dominates them, remain limited in time and space, and there are many legal and political problems which prevent them from being generalized. To satisfy the large need in education, and taking into account the condition of the family and its limited means in this perspective, some Islamic institutions in the West (centers, mosques, associations, alliances) have organized sessions in parallel education in those institutions, which target the teaching of Muslim children the basics of Islamic education, Arabic language and Islamic culture, so as to consolidate their identity and belonging, and to create opportunities for understanding and communication among themselves and their families.(38) In fact, the Islamic institutions mentioned above have played a leading role in the teaching of Islamic education and Arabic language, and have laid the structures for this kind of education and its supervision. They have done so despite the limited means and poor financial resources and the limited staff qualified to undertake educational tasks, and the recourse to educational curricula imported from some native countries in the absence of a specific curriculum designed for the teaching of the children of immigrant Muslims. Certainly, one cannot claim that the complementary schools include all the children of the Muslim community in the school age, but they are limited to just a few, which makes many other young people under the sole influence of Western schools and media. The methods of the teaching of Islamic education and Arabic language in Europe can be summarized as follows : 2.1 Parallel or complementary education is organized by Islamic institutions (centers, mosques, associations, etc.) either at the end of the week or during some limited hours in the middle of the week. This form of parallel education has evolved through the efforts of some volunteers in certain associations to offer support and reinforcement to students who suffer from underachievement in public schools, but it now emphasizes the teaching of Islamic education and Arabic language. 2.2 Western education in special Arabic or Islamic schools, a few schools frequeneted by a limited number of students, where teaching takes place throughout the week. Besides the other curricula in European languages, devoted to the teaching of Arabic language and Islamic culture. 2.3 Education in some public schools which have allowed, in a limited way, the teaching of Islamic culture in European languages, besides the teaching of the fundamentals of Arabic. However, this is not enough to enable even the reading of some Koranic verses. This kind of education is found, in a limited way, in Belgium and Austria, alongside experiments in some schools language in the Netherlands and France, where the children of immigrants constitute the majority. 3. Evaluation of parallel education experience The emphasis on the evaluation of the experience of parallel education is, in light of the present conditions, the most important,since it includes the highest rate of students who benefit from the teaching of Islamic education and Arabic language. However, some of the problems this kind of education suffers from can be summarized as follows : 3.1 At the institutional level : - The absence of a comprehensive survey of the educational needs across Europe and the limited resources available. - The absence of an institutional framework for coordination both at the general level of Europe and at the level of each country. - The variation of the intervening parties in this kind of education and the conflict of their goals and, sometimes, methods. - The insufficient financial and human resources which constitutes an obstacle for the satisfaction of all the needs in the educational field. 3.2 At the educational level : - The absence of an educational system specific to the teaching of Islamic education and Arabic language to the children of Muslim immigrants in Europe. - The reliance on some methods used in the native country which do not match the specifics of immigration, and are contested when applied to other communities. - The lack of textbooks specific to the children of immigrants and their poor quality compared to the European textbooks. - The absence of educator training that will satisfy the targeted objectives. - The reliance in parallel education on vertical classes, which do not take into account age variation. - The feeling among children of some kind of fatigue because parallel education takes place during recess time. - The weak pedagogical means used,to the extent of appearing primitive compared to those available in European schools. - The absence of a standardized system of evaluation which allows for follow-up and the tracking of the pupil's progress. 4. The specific objective of the strategy in the field of education : To meet the educational needs, which both the immigrant parents and children are increasingly require, and given the importance of Islamic cultural work in the West at the beginning of the twentieth century, we observe that the educational field constitutes the backbone of the strategy of Islamic cultural action , for all the efforts in the social and da’wa areas are geared towards the educational field. Any progress in education and teaching helps in the improvement of the life quality of Muslims in Europe. It helps them better cope with their environment and makes them present a good image of Islam. The specific goals for the targeted cultural strategy in the educational field can be summarized as follows : - To help achieve a balanced education for Muslim children in Europe through spiritual training,, besides the intellectual training of the child in order to "protect him from cultural encroachment, intellectual assimilation and educational hegemony. If these reach a critical stage, they lead to dissolution in non-Islamic cultures and the prevention of the individual and society from their cultural and civilizational belonging.(39) - To serve the general goals of thorough cultural development which aims to form and educate the Muslim who is proud of his Islamic belonging and identity, who is open to his environment and can serve as a good example through his innovations and leading achievements in various fields. - To use the contents of Islamic education in school programs with a view to preserve the personal and cultural identity of the young Muslim generations, and to consolidate the cultural self in a scientific and solid way in the face of cultural hegemony and assimilation. - To help rationalize, orient and coordinate the educational and teaching work in Europe among several partners. - To take into account the specifics of the European reality, particularly the compound training of the new Muslim generations in Europe, as there is an original Islamic identity, the influence of an immigrant culture and that of the European environment. - To help form movements and positive values for the second and third generations regarding such issues as coexistence, understanding, communication, dialogue, and intellectual and material production and innovation. II. Future Prospects 1. Islamic awareness as alternative to alienation The end-of-century period is witnessing the rise of prospects in some form of dual criticism : self-criticism and criticism of the other. While self-criticism aims to criticize extremism, excess, militancy and the superficial understanding of culture, the criticism of the other has actually started with the dwindling infatuation with Western civilization and the increase in the desire to meet the scientific and technological challenges. The practice of this kind of criticism is in itself a blessed awareness ,which has to move from the assertion of existence to the ratification of the civilizational project as an alternative that relies on true Islam and the positive acquisition of human civilization. The diagnostic of the reality of the cultural scene of the children of the Muslim community, undertaken above, reveals that the fundamental problematic is in fact due to the persistance of two negative phenomena : - The failure of Muslim communities to provide an example about the real Islam, the reasons for which vary from the subjective to the objective. - The failure of the West to understand Islam and the attempts of the Western media to reduce it to some practices which have nothing to do with Islam. The continuity of this critical situation, characterized by lack of communication between the two sides, can lead to the accumulation of crises and struggles, which threaten to explode and whose consequences are difficult to predict. Therefore, we believe that the formulation of a strategy for Islamic cultural action on behalf of the communities is now a top priority. Concerning the presence of Islam in the West, we can distinguish between three periods : a. Old Islamic presence implanted in some European regions for many centuries, and which constitutes the remains of what is left of the fortresses of Islam in Europe such as Bosnia and Herzegovina, among others. b. Islamic presence through immigration which is relatively new, but it has settled in Europe with the settlement of the immigrants who abandoned the idea of returning home. c. The conversion of some Europeans to Islam in recent years as a result of the enlightening Islamic awareness, and as a result of their conviction of the eternal message of Islam. Often, these are members of the intellectual elite or scholars. And though the number of these is limited, their influence is often worthwhile. Also, some other Europeans have embraced Islam as a result of mixed marriage with immigrant Muslim families. We can deduce from the presence of Islam in the West, which is expanding quantitatively and qualitatively, that this religion has become a reality in Europe, and is deeply rooted in the cultural structure of Europe. Therefore, it is irreversible and, contrary to what some might think, it cannot be uprooted. But this Islamic presence, which faces great challenges and unparalleled resistance, cannot play its noble role unless it is in harmony with the spirit of Islam and its goals are guided by it, avoiding the style of militancy, excess and extremism. It should be inspired by the Holy Quranic verse ‘‘Call (people ) to your God’s way through wisdom and good advice , and argue with them in a positive way’’ In order to achieve the targeted communication and to open constructive dialogue, there are tasks incumbent upon the two sides : a. For the Islamic side: the reinforcement of Islamic culture which is based on the eternal facts of Islam, its teachings and noble principles based on peace, moderation, coexistence, rapprochement, cooperation, integration and other Islamic civilizational values, inspired by the Holy Quranic verse ’’We made of you peoples and tribes for you to know each other ; the most blessed among you is the most pious”. Therefore, there should be a new perception based on the reconciliation of Muslims with the others by "respecting their ways of thinking and living, their freedom, their laws and the systems they have chosen of their own volition to organize public life in their countries, and by respecting their traditions and customs in such a way as to create a sense of trust and tranquility".(40) b. For the European side: Europe has to make further efforts to understand Islam in its reality, because the current understanding is governed by political circumstances and struggles linked to the problems of immigration. There are many opportunities for Europe to learn from the merits of Islam and the resources of Muslims, subject to dealing with Islam as a religion, culture and civilization, and opening a cultural dialogue with European Muslims. But if the concern of Europe is only to assimilate Muslims, this will not help transcend the current crisis. Also, Europe cannot judge a religion that has a history, civilization and culture which have made contributions - as many witness - in founding a civilization and human heritage, on the basis of the thoughtless behavior of some extremists. It should be noted that the history of all religions has witnessed the rise of similar phenomena. 2. Implanting Islam in the West While everybody talks about the necessity to integrate Muslim immigrants in the country of residence, the conception of integration differs according to the party it emanates from. Most European countries understand by integration some form of dissolution in its social and civilizational fabric. The native countries ,however,understand integration as benefiting from what immigration offers, but with a continued link with the country of origin. Lying between these two conceptions are many sub-conceptions, the most important of which are enabling the immigrants to lead their private lives in accordance with their civilization, values and traditions, but with a respect of host countries and their laws, and enabling them to participate politically in the same degree that they actively contribute to economic life.(41) The latter approach is close to the specifics of the current reality of Islamic immigration, which has increased in quantity and quality and now possesses a history and a field in which it moves and interacts with its environment, its own collective memory and specific culture, attempting to preserve its firm spiritual link with Islam as a creed and legislation. The approach to the conception of integration in this manner will eventually lead us to the conception of implantation. The prospective strategic vision of Islam entails working towards the implantation of Islam in the West in accordance with the new position Islam occupies there, which resides in the settlement of Islam and Muslims in a definitive way in Europe. Therefore, cultural action and religious orientation have to prepare the Muslim communities to sympathize with the host country, to participate positively in its social, economic and political organizations, away from militancy and excess. Their link with their places of residence as their countries of adoption will help them accomplish the following : - Resolving the problems of influence which tear them apart, - Feeling tranquil and settle, - Interacting positively with their social and economic environment, - Improving the school results of their children, - Participating in local public activities. The implantation of Islam in Europe has now become one of the persistent priorities that Muslim communities and their leaderships have to deal with. In fact, the process of implantation is not free of challenges, with their social and legal implications. For instance, how can a second or third generation Muslim resident in Europe reconcile the principles of Islamic jurisdiction, especially in what concerns personal statutes, and the requirements of European civil laws? The natural difference between the two laws now poses many challenges to the settlement and openness of Muslim families. Therefore, local Muslim scholars and advisers have to be implanted in order to work, through law-making, to develop a system of jurisprudence which responds to the specifics of Islam in a non-Muslim environment, and responds to the social, economic and legal conditions of Muslims in Europe. We believe that the achievement of this would constitute a development in the modern Muslim mind since it would enable it to open up to large prospects. Everybody aspires now to see the Muslim community benefit from psychological settlement, and see it in solidarity with itself, active economically and socially, and truly integrated in its environment. Thus, the Muslim community can have its specific enlightenment when its members give a good example in such fields as economics, science, culture, and sports. To achieve these fundamental principles, some behaviors which have long dominated should be jettisoned, such as confusion, worry and fear of disclosing one's identity, and abnegation of the self and refusal to participate in general activities. The transition from the strategy of quantity to that of initiative and self-assertion will have to go through the continued flow of information, education, communication and acculturation. Here, the current cultural centers and educational institutions have to adopt the new tendency, and have to be equipped with the necessary human and financial resources to implement the new strategy. 3. The role of Islamic culture in identity formation Many studies and researches undertaken around the crisis of identity and cultural alienation have demonstrated that the children of immigrant parents live in deplorable conditions, which are due to cultural alienation and the loss of Islamic identity, and the consequences thereof such as the loss of self-confidence, seclusion, underachievement and poor adjustment with the surrounding world. Responsibility here is incumbent upon the European educational systems which refuse to open up to the cultures of the others, and society which rejects whoever does not embody the European values and culture. The Western educational systems deal with these immigrant generations as though they were isolated from their Islamic roots and referentiality. It is sad that these generations, which are subject to a confrontation in which their language, religion and culture are ignored, and when they turn to their parents in search of a cultural alternative based on a true knowledge of Islam, they do not find satisfaction because of the widespread illiteracy especially among the first generation. The same is true when it comes to the acquisition of European culture, for the dominant aspect is that the children of Muslim communities possess only some superficial aspects of Western civilization, which means that a huge number of the children of the communities live on the margins of two different cultures. They do not know the real European culture, because of discrimination and lack of equal opportunities, and they do not know the Islamic culture because of the poor family education. From a theoretical point of view, we find that the school and the family build the consciousness of the child through socialization, by providing him with the seeds which will grow in the form of values, tendencies and behaviors. They, then, drive him to engage in the experience of societal life with his educational background. But in the case of immigration, we find that what the family inculcates into the children is part of the traditions which have been transcended even in the native country itself. As for school, because of its pedagogical methods and educational styles, it is unable to accommodate the needs of these psychologically-distraught children. It has even worsened their conditions on account of the lack of equal opportunities inside it and, sometimes, the racism of some educators. The western school is responsible for failing to make knowledge and teaching appealing to these children who have come to it for this very purpose. We, therefore, find that the children of immigrants whom we want to provide a model, do not only suffer from the problem of alienation from the culture of the country of residence, but also suffer from the problem of alienation from the country of origin, which is supposed to offer them self-confidence.(42) The two sources, i.e. school and family, do not offer the children of immigrants the cultural ingredients that will satisfy their needs. In the meantime, they exert pressure on the young generation. The end result is a split and disintegration between the response to the pressures of school and society and the response to the requirements of the family. In light of the condition of worry and disintegration, some members of the Muslim community sometimes think that they have chances of integrating and coping with Western civilization, but they later face the shock resulting from harassment and racist behavior that make them feel undesirable. The lack of compatibility between the official discourse and the living reality, and the series of disappointments put us just before an identity without a sense of belonging, an identity which, suffering from unfair phenomena, can be led into deviance or seclusion. Here, one should ask the following question: when we make an effort to link the new generations of young immigrants to the roots of their Islamic culture, do we really help them achieve selfhood and communicate with their surrounding environment and interact with it in a constructive and positive way ? Or, do we fortify them against all forms of adjustment ? The situation becomes even more complex. We believe that drawing a link with the original Islamic culture, Islamic teaching, understanding and practice, does not pose an obstacle at all. On the contrary, it is a natural and legitimate act, a protection and fortification from the psychological disintegration and the attempts to appropriate and dissolve. It aims, in the first place, to achieve self-confidence and the feeling of belonging to a referentiality with its history, culture and glory. The fortification of the self, with regard to Islamic culture, is to provide it with the mechanism to appropriate civilizations and cultures without dissolving in them and without feeling inferior and self-dejected. We believe that any kind of positive interaction with the environment at the level of education, initiative and transaction has to rely on this crucial psychological rule. When we talk about the teaching of Islamic culture in the West as a support for the identity of the children of the community, as a method to achieve reconciliation with the self and liberation from alienation, we have to distinguish between two levels, within the framework of the teachings of Islam, on which identity is founded.(43) - The teaching of Islamic creed, with its different elements and contents, through the teaching of Islamic education. This field cannot be taught outside of the schools annexed to mosques and Islamic cultural and educational centers. - The teaching of the history of Islam, its civilization and cultural contributions to the human heritage. This part can be integrated into the curricula of Western schools. Based on this, the roles of the family and Islamic cultural centers on the one hand, and those of the European school, on the other, can be distributed as follows : The role of Islamic institutions and cultural and educational centers Given the limited cultural reality of the Muslim immigrant family, to which the majority of workers belong, the question of the teaching of Islamic creed and education is incumbent, in the first place, upon Islamic institutions and cultural centers. These should be restructured and equipped with the human and financial resources to perform their tasks, and should be encouraged to renew their pedagogical tools and use modern technology in the field of communication. The curricula and programs should not only target school age children and youth by also adults and parents. The role of European schools The question of the teaching of religion in European schools is subject to a great deal of controversy on account of the sensitivity attached to it. Some countries have issued laws (France, for instance) forbiding the teaching of religion in public schools in accordance with the principle of secularism. But there are other countries, such as Belgium, which permit the teaching of recognized religions. There exist some educational initiatives which aim at including the culture of the children of immigrants in public schools within the spirit of inter-culturalism. The purpose behind this is to achieve the goals of openness to the culture of the other and to create opportunities for the children of Europeans to know some aspects of the culture of the children of immigrants. But this approach has remained limited to some experiments and has not been generalized. It has also remained subject to an anthropological conception of culture, because there is an attempt to confine the culture of immigrants to some folk aspects and some traditions and popular sayings. Nevertheless, we can ask for the activation and generalization of the project of inter-culturalism on the condition that it be attributed a new content which would give the Islamic culture and religion their due, by making the children of immigrants or others close to the history and civilization of Islam and its bright contributions to philosophy, science and art, with a view to enriching the human heritage. There should also be endeavors to sensitize European educational authorities to work towards the improvement of the image of Islam in European textbooks, as well as the contents of history courses that their students and the children of Muslim communities learn. Any equation of the sort, which pretends to apply inter-culturalism, should acknowledge that in the field of culture, there is no such thing as high culture and low culture, and that cultural dialogue and cross-culturalism cannot take place in conditions dominated by the hegemony of one culture over the other. Notes 1. Dr. Abdulaziz Othman Altwaijri, The Conditions of the Islamic World and Future Strategy. ISESCO Publications, 1994, pp. 7-8. 2. Hichem Djait, L'Europe et l'Islam. Paris : Seuil, 1974, p. 58. 3. Félice Dasseto, La construction de L'Islam européen, Approche Socio-anthropologique. Paris l'Harmattan, 1996, p. 19. 4. Mohamed Al-Houary, Al Muslimoon fi lgharb wa mustaqbaluhum attaqafi, 1997, p. 2 (typed article). 5. Abdessamad Benkirane, Mulahathatun hawla waq'ii al-usra al-muslima fi urupa. A'mal jami'at assahwa al-islamia hawla al-islam walmuslimoon bi-urupa. 1997. Part I, p. 269. 6. Abdessamad Benkirane, Mulahathatun hawla waq'ii al-usra al-muslima fi urupa, A'mal jami'at assahwa al-islamia hawla al-islam walmuslimoon bi-urupa, Casablanca, 1997. Part I, p. 267. 7. Ibid., p. 270. 8- Félice Dasseto, Musulmans de l'Europe des douze, In Eglise et mission, No. 275, Septembre, 1994. 9. Abdessamad Benkirane, p. 280. 10. Abdessalam Belaji, Dawr al-muassassat al-islamia fi-tawttini al-islam fi-bilad al-mahjar, A'mal jami'at assahwa al-islamia hawla al-islam walmuslimoon bi-urupa, p. 47. 11. Mamoun Moubid, Mashru' istratigiata-shuun al-ijtimai' lil'amal attaqafi al-islami fi l'gharb, Belfast, 1998. 12. Mamoun Moubid, ibid. 13. Abdellatif Kattani. Al-muslimoon bi-italia, In Al-Islam walmuslimoon bi-urupa, Jami'at assahwa al-islamia. Kingdom of Morocco, p. 319. 14. Mamoun Moubid. 15. Abdessamad Benkirane, Mulahathatun hawla waq'ii al-usra al-muslima fi urupa, In Al-islam walmuslimoon bi-urupa, Jami'at assahwa al-islamia, 256. 16. Al Arbi Wafi, Al-Marjia' Al-Islamia wa istratijiat attaryir, Unpublished paper. 1997. 17. ISESCO : wad' al-mara' fi l-alam al-Islami, Conference proceedings, ISESCO publications, 1994. 18. Abd Almajid Tribaq, Nadarat fi waqi' alusra al-muslima bi-urupa, In Al-islam walmuslimoon bi-urupa, pp. 354-55. 19. Abdessamad Benkirane, Ibid., pp. 301-303. 20. Abdessamad Benkirane, Ibid., pp. 301-303. 21. Abdessamad Benkirane, Ibid., 289-290. 22. Ahmad Al Raoui. Attawasul fi addin wa-lfikr bayna al-ajiali al-Muslima. Jami'at assahwa, p. 143. 23. Abdessamad Benkirane, Ibid., 289-90. 24. Abd Almajid Tribaq, p. 348. 25. Abdessalam Belaji. Dawr al-muassassat al-islamia fi-tawttin al-islam fi-bilad al-mahjar. In A'mal jami'at assahwa al-islamia hawla al-islam walmuslimoon, p. 53. 26. Abdessalam Belaji, Ibid., pp. 58-59. 27. Mohamed Mihrach. Madahiru alwujoodi al-Islami bi-hulanda wa ba'du mua'wiqatihi. In A'mal jami'at assahwa al-islamia hawla al-islam walmuslimoon, p. 437. 28. Abdessalam Belaji, Ibid., p 49. 29. Abdessalam Belaji, Ibid., pp 57-58. 30. Mohamed Mihrach, Ibid., pp. 438-39. 31. Abdessalam Belaji, Ibid., p. 55. 32. Salah Eddine Al-Ja'faraoui, Alwujudu al-islami fi urupa, judurun tarikhiatun, waqi'un malmoussun, mustaqbalun mushriqun, In A'mal jami'at assahwa al-islamia hawla al-islam walmuslimoon, pp. 164-65. 33. Abd Almajid Tribaq, Ibid., pp. 355-56. 34. Abdellatif Kattani, Ibid., p. 331, Salah Eddine Al-Ja'faraoui, p. 165. 35. Abdallah Khiari. Ta'lim al-lura al-arabia wa at-taqafa al-Islamia li-abnaii al-jalia bi-lkharij. Dafatir markaz ad-dirassati wa al-abhati hawla harakati al hijrati al-magharibiati No. 4-1995. Publications of the University of Mohamed I, Oujda, Morocco. 36. Nahwa istratijiatin litattwiri attarbiati fi lbiladi al-Islamiati. ISESCO Publications. 1990, p. 35.
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