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CHAPTER III : A HISTORY OF
THE CITY OF AL-QODS IN THE ARAB-ISLAMIC ERA
Muslim Arabs conquered the city of Al-Qods in the reign of wise Caliph Omar bin
Al-Khattâb (15 A.H./638 A.D.). (49) Caliph Omar (may Allah be pleased with him)
took good care of the Christian and Jewish holy places.
Likewise, he manifested no intolerance of their worship practices. (50) With
this Arabo-Islamic conquest, many Arabs settled in Al-Qods, which became an Arab
and Islamic city. (51) When the conflict between Ali bin Abi-Tâlib and
Mu'âwiyyah ended in favour of the latter (40 A.H./660 A.D.), it was in Al-Qods
that, upon the abdication of Al-Hassan bin Ali, Mu'âwiyyah was appointed as a
Caliph. (52)
The Umayyad caliphs gave great importance to the city of Al-Qods, where several
of them were invested and given allegiance as rulers. In addition to that of
Mu'âwiyyah, such was the case of Caliph Suleyman bin Abdul-Mâlik (96 A.H./714
A.D.) among others. The Caliphs had their palaces built in the neighbourhood of
the Esplanade of Al-Haram Al-Shareef, as demonstrated by the recently undertaken
excavations. The importance of this city to them was brilliantly manifested
through the construction of the sumptuous Dome of the Rock and the Mosque of
Al-Aqsâ, both of these being considered masterpieces of Umayyad architecture in
Palestine. Some Umayyad Caliphs liked Palestine
so much that they decided to settle in Al-Qods. Abdul-Mâlik was one such. Others
almost transferred their capital from Damascus to Al-Qods and Ramalah,
as in the case of Suleyman bin Abdul-Mâlik.
Among other things that the Abbassids inherited from the Umayyads was the city
of Al-Qods, which they sought to embellish. Thus, they restored the Mosque of
Al-Aqsa and the Dome of the Rock subsequent to the damage that these had
suffered. Some of the greatest Abbassid Caliphs, like Al-Mâmûn, Al-Mansûr, and
Al-Mahdî, made special journeys to visit Al-Qods.
In the Abbassid era, Muslims and Christians lived together
in a symbiotic manner. The Christian pilgrim, Bernard Le Sage, described life in
Al-Qods in
these terms : "Muslims and Christians in this peaceful city live in perfect
harmony". (53)
With the decline that the struggle for succession brought
to the bbassid dynasty, both Al-Qods and Palestine came under the administration
of the Tûlûnids, who were regional governors from Egypt (265-292 A.H. / 878-905
A.D.). These were succeeded by the Ikhshidites (327-359 A.H. / 939-969 A.D.),
who gave such importance to the city of Al-Qods that some of their leaders made
the will to be buried in it, and their
will was subsequently carried out. (54) Thus Muhammad Al-Ikhshîdî, who died in
Damascus, was buried in Al-Qods (334 A.H./945 A.D.). Likewise, the sepulchre of
Abul-Qâssim Muhammad (349 A.H./960 A.D.) is located in this city, in which he
lies next to the tomb of his father, Muhammad Abul-Qâssim, named "Anûjûr". It
was in the reign of the latter that Khosrû, the Muslim traveller of Persian
origin, visited Al-Qods, which he thus described in his book, Safarnâma :
"The
population of Al-Qods amounts to twenty thousand souls. Its
markets are tidy and attractive. Its streets are paved
with cobblestones. In the area known as "As-Sâhira", there is a vast
necropolis with the tombs of many benefactors in it…" (55)
Also buried in Al-Qods were Abul-Hassan Al-Ikshîdî, who
died in 965 A.D., and his successor, "Kâfûr", who made speeches in the city as
parts of his travels to Syria and Palestine and who upon his death in Egypt in
53. Palestine Encyclopedia, Vol. 3 (1984), p. 512.
54. Ad-Dabbâgh Mustapha, Beit Al-Maqdis, 9/2-1, p.
118, citing At-Tabarî, pp. 158-161.
55. Al-'Aref (1951), The History of Al-Qods, p. 60.
966 A.D. was carried all the way to the city where his predecessor and master
was buried. This goes to show that the importance that
Al-Qods had for the Ikshidites was mainly of a religious and spiritual
order. Indeed, in their reign, this holy city did not have much of a commercial,
economic, or
military role. (56) It was the town of Ramlah which by far played such a role.
Thanks to Jawhar As-Siqalli, the general of the Egyptian
army in the reign of Caliph Al-Mu'izz li Dîn-Allah Al-Fâtimî, the Fâtimids in
357 A.H./966 A.D. took advantage of the power-eroding internal differences over
succession upon the death of "Kâfûr" and seized the power from the weakened
Ikshidites, chasing them away. Hence Al-Qods came under their control in 359
A.H./969 A.D. Accordingly, this city of twenty thousand inhabitants became
well-known
for the fertility of its farm-land as well as the beauty of its sites,
olive-trees,
vines, apple-trees, carob-trees, together with the quality
of its cotton-fiber and
soap-brands. On the political level, it ranked second to Ramlah. (57)
The beginning of the Fatimid reign was marked by such good treatment of the
Christians within the holy city that Al-'Azîz bin Al-Mu'izz appointed as
governor of Palestine a Coptic minister by the name of Abûl-Youmn Qazmân.
At the beginning of his reign, Al-Mansûr bin Abdel'azîz,
better known as "Al-Hâkim bi Amr-Allah" (386-411 A.H./996-1020 A.D.), followed
the example of Ibn Al-Mu'izz ; however, he subsequently changed his mind and
turned against the Christians.
In point of fact, both Christians and Muslims (58) suffered his mismanagement
of public affairs. But he ultimately thought better of it and allowed the
Christians to build churches, and it is reported that he even went as far as to
grant credit from his funds for the construction of places of churches and
convents for the benefit of his Christian subjects. This gesture indicates his
respect for their religion.
The wall of Al-Qods was erected in the reign of Ad-Dhâhir
li I'Zâz Dîn-Allah Al-Hâkim. The earthquake that occurred at that time almost
destroyed Al-Aqsâ, but Ad-Dhâhir had it both restored and enlarged. (59)
56. Al-'Aref, Ibid., p. 61. See also, Ibn To'zâ,
An-Nujûm Az-Zâhira fi Akhbâr Misr wal Qâhira
(Twinkling Stars in the Chronicles of Egypt and Cairo),
Vol. 4, p. 4.
57. Al-'Aref, Ibid., p. 62.
58. Palestine Encyclopedia, p. 512. Al-'Aref,
Ibid., p. 62.
59. Al-'Aref, Ibid., p. 63.'Aref, A History of Al-Haram Al-Qodsî, p. 18. In 463
A.H./1070 A.D., the Seljuks put an end to the Fatimid rule of Al-Qods and
restored Abbassid legitimacy therein. Thereafter, the Friday Khotba (sermon) was
to be delivered in the name of the Abbassid caliph. However, twenty-six years
later, the Fatimids, led by Caliph Al-Musta'li, recovered Al-Qods, which they
controlled for three years. (60) The Franks, as we will see below, captured the
city thereafter.
A number of public institutions were founded in Al-Qods in the Seljuk era,
including the "Bîmâristân", which was the first hospital complex in the city,
and "Dâr Al-'Ilm" (the House of Learning), which was an annex of "Dâr Al-Hikma"
(the House of Wisdom) in Egypt. (61) Geographer Al-Maqdissî, in his Ahsanu
At-Taqâssim fî Ma'rifat Al-Aqâlîm, wrote the following by way of describing
Al-Qods :
"There is no city greater than Al-Qods. With its mild climate, the winter in it
is never harsh and the summer never scorching.
Snow rarely ever falls there, which gives it a quality of paradise.
Further, Al-Maqdissî writes that "It is prettier than Egypt <…> more majestic
and nobler <…> However, being both temporal and spiritual, Al-Qods has its own
disadvantages. Hence, for instance, some of its golden walls are teeming with
scorpions. Its public baths are sordid. It
60. Palestine Encyclopedia, Vol. 3, p. 572.
61. Palestine Encyclopedia, Vol. 3, p. 512. Al-'Aref, A History of Al-Qods, p.
63
62. This passage was quoted further above.
63. This passage is quoted by Al-'Aref in his book, The History of Al-Qods, p.
64. Al-'Aref quotes it from Al-'Adsi, giving the particulars of the source.
Nâssir Khosrû, who visited Al-Qods in 1047 A.D., introduces it as follows:
"The city is enclosed within a fortified wall ; it is built of stone, and it has
iron gates. It has some twenty thousand inhabitants, most of whom are artisans.
For each guild of craftsmen, there is a special market…" (64)
In 1072 A.D., the Seljuk general Alp Arslan seized Al-Qods. After his death, his
son Mâlik Shâh succeeded him and chose the title of "As-Sultân Al-'âdil" (the
upright Sultan); however, as it happened under his reign, specifically in 1077
A.D., the inhabitants of Al-Qods rose up against the Seljuk governors. One of
the latter, Emir Irtiq bin Iksik At-Turkumânî founded in Al-Qods a dynasty that
bore his name. Upon his death in 1091 A.D., his two sons jointly governed
Palestine and Al-Qods until 1096 A.D., when the Fatimids made a comeback and
took the power away from them. (65)
The Franks took advantage of the conflicts opposing the
Fatimids to the Seljuks, ultimately vanquished them, and finally made their
long-cherished dream come true by capturing Al-Qods under the pretext of
securing the access of Christian pilgrims to the Holy Land. One of the
historians of the Crusades describes the conquest of Al-Qods in the following
way :
"The Byzantines besieged the city on June 7, 1099 A.D. and it was not until the
night from 13th to 14th of July of the same year that they managed to enter it.
This long siege as well as the enormous difficulties they had to overcome so as
to occupy Al-Qods made them furious. They attacked houses and mosques, and they
killed all the people they met on their way : men, women, and children, without
distinction or pity."
The slaughter lasted all day Thursday 14 July 1099 A.D. and all night from
Thursday to Friday. The Tancred standard that the Crusaders flew at the top of
the minaret of the Mosque of Al-Aqsa and of the Dome of the Rock did not spare
Muslims from massacre. According to the Armenian sources, more than 65 thousand
Muslims were killed during this barbarous attack. The Latin sources give
accounts of streets and squares strewn with corpses, cut-off heads, single arms
and legs scattered all over. (66)
64. Quoted by Al-'Aref in his book, The History of
Al-Qods, p. 65.
65. Al-'Aref, Ibid., p. 67.
66. In this passage, the author has drawn on Ad-Dabbâgh's Our Land Palestine :
Beit Al-Maqdis (1975), pp. 157-180 and on Philippe Hitti's The History of Syria
and Palestine, Vol. 2, p. 229.
An eminent Arab historian, Ibn Al-Athîr (1160 A.H./1234
A.D.), in his work Al-Kâmil fi Attârîkh (The Complete in History), writes the
following on the siege of Al-Qods and the bloodshed perpetrated by the
Christians on the Muslim population :
"When
the Christians reached Al-Qods, they besieged it for over
forty days (…) They erected two towers (…) Raging battles followed and, for a
week, the Christians slaughtered the
Muslims…"
Thus eminent Muslim scholars were killed, many of whom
were great ascetics, who had turned away from luxuries and physical pleasures in
order to devote their life in this holy Islamic city to the worship of Allah.
Gustave Le Bon contrasts the Christians' inhuman behaviour
during their occupation of Al-Qods with that of Omar bin Al-Khattab, who was so
tolerant, towards the inhabitants of the city, their faith, and their places of
worship. (See 'Caliph Omar's Covenant' at the beginning of this book).
On 17 July 1099, when Al-Qods found some peace, the
Crusaders met to discuss the future of the holy city. A Christian Kingdom was
then created and Godfrey of Bouillon became its ruler, taking the designation of
"Defender of the Holy Sepulchre". Godfrey remained the ruler of this Kingdom
until he died of typhoid in Jaffa in 1100 A.D. His brother, Baldwin I, succeeded
him and, after taking the title of King, became the first Christian monarch of
the Kingdom of Al-Qods, which lasted from 1100 to 1187 A.D. He extended his
territory as far as the tiny Pharaoh island, thus controlling all the commerce
roads linking
Damascus to Hedjaz and to Egypt. (67) At his death in 1118 A.D., the Kingdom
of Al-Aqsa had reached its peak, stretching from
Al-'Aqabah to Beirut and
eastward to the Jordan Valley. (68)
Between 1118 and 1131 A.D., Baldwin II of Le Bourg ruled
as the successor of Baldwin I. He was the latter's cousin and, like the latter,
he was the count of Edessa (1100-1118 A.D.). Baldwin II was captured by the
Muslims in one of the battles he fought against them. He was released at the end
of 1124 and in 1125 he returned to Al-Qods, the capital of his Kingdom. His
reign was marked by the formation of the Knights Hospitalers and the Knights
Tamplars. Baldwin II was succeeded by his son-in-law, Fulk of Anjou (1131-1143 A.D.), who had many fortresses constructed in order to defend his Kingdom and to extend his power over the commerce roads. (69)
67. Ad-Dabbâgh, Our Land Palestine : Beit Al-Maqdis, pp.
170 and 171.
68. Philippe Hittî, The History of Syria and Palestine,
Vol. 2, p. 231.
69. Ad-Dabbâgh, Ibid., pp. 176-77.
70. Al-'Aref (1984), A Detailed History of Al-Qods.
71. Palestine Encyclopedia, Vol. 3, p. 512.
72. Al-'Aref, Ibid., p. 75.
73. Palestine Encyclopedia, p. 512. Al-'Aref, Ibid., pp.
74 and 76.
Several works in Arabic and other languages deal with this
period :
- Ransiman, A History of the Crusades, in three volumes.
74. Al-'Aref (1984), A Detailed History of Al-Qods, pp.
157-158. Ad-Dabbâgh, Ibid., p. 200.
Upon his death in the course of a hunting expedition, he
was succeeded by his son, Baldwin III (1143-1162), whose reign witnessed such
important events as the fall of Edessa to the Muslims. He died in Beirut in 1162
A.D. and was succeeded as King of Jerusalem by his brother, Amalric I (1162-1174
A.D.), who was succeeded by Baldwin IV (1174-1185 A.D.), then by Baldwin V
(1185-1186 A.D.).
Finally, came the reign of Guy of Lusignan (1186-1187
A.D.), who was captured in 1187 A.D. and released the following year. This makes
Guy of Lusignan the last Latin King of Al-Qods, for his political incompetence
brought about the decisive battle of Hattin, wherein Salâhuddîn Al-Ayyûbi
(Saladin) liberated Al-Qods on October 2, 1187 A.D., putting an end to a period
of about
eighty-eight years of Frank rule over this city. (70) Upon entering Al-Qods,
Salâhuddîn Al-Ayyûbi allowed the Franks to leave the city
in exchange for a token tax on each person with the decent financial means to do
so. The poor and the have-nots were allowed to leave free of charge. Salâhuddîn
Al-Ayyûbi's
treatment of his Frank prisoners was so fair that he has
been considered
throughout Christendom as a model of Islamic chivalric values. (71)
During their reign, the Franks made attempts to modify the aspect of the
monuments of the city of Al-Qods. Thus, they put a cross at the top of the Dome
of the Rock. They made the Mosque of Al-Aqsa into the headquarters of
the order of the knights Templars (72) and appointed a Latin patriarch to
replace
the Orthodox patriarch. Likewise, they erected a number of religious buildings
as well as large-capacity hospices for pilgrims. (73)
When the great Sultan Taqiyuddîn Omar bin Shâhinshâh walked into the gallery of the Mosque of Omar, he made a point of sweeping the floor therein himself, washing it several times with water, using rose water for the last wash, and cleaning its walls and its panelling. (74)
A map of Al-Qods in the Reign of the Crusaders (1170 A.D.)
Ransiman, a historiographer of the Crusades, writes about Al-Qods after it was
freed by Salâhuddîn and about the relationship between Muslims and Christians
that
"While
the Franks had been for eighty-eight years worse and
bloody villains, the Muslims became well known for their uprightness and their
goodness. Under their reign, there was neither pillage nor oppression, for
security men under the order of Saladin patrolled the streets, saw to the
respect of law and
order, and prevented any attack of the Christians." (75)
In Salâhuddîn's time, the city of Al-Qods achieved great
prosperity. Schools, institutes, hospital complexes, hospices, and leisure
centres were constructed in large numbers. Trade was brisk and very fruitful.
There was an abundance of export products like cheese, cotton, raisins, olives,
apples, special
dairy products, mirrors, oil lamps, and so forth. (76) Among the edifices erected by Salâhuddîn Al-Ayyûbi, one can mention the Mâristân (a hospital complex) (77) , As-Salâhiyya Caravanserai, the Dome of Youssuf, As-Salâhiyya School, Al-Khashaniyya School, Al-Mâmûniyya School, and many other constructions. Al-Qods remained Salâhuddîn Al-Ayyûbi's favourite city to the day he died in 589 A.H./1193 A.D. in Damascus, where he was buried. (78) His Sultanat was subsequently divided up into several kingdoms led by each of his sons, brothers, and cousins. Al-Qods was the lot of his son Al-Afdal, who erected in it Al-Afdaliyya School and Al-'Umarî Mosque. However, he ended up conceding the city to his brother King Al-'Azeez, the Sultan of Egypt. (79) Among the Ayyubid sultans who particularly favoured the city of Al-Qods were King Al-Mu'addham Sharafuddîn 'Issâ, who, following in the footsteps of King Al-'Aâdil, frequently visited Al-Qods, in which he built several edifices.
75. Ad-Dabbâgh, Ibid., p. 200.
76. Ad-Dabbâgh, Ibid., p. 204. Al-'Aref, Ibid., pp. 79-80.
77. Some historians believe that the Mâristân was built by
the Fatimids. The Franks used it but added no extensions to it. When Salâhuddîn
liberated Al-Qods, he had it refurbished and enlarged, thus making the entire
complex the largest hospital in the Islamic Empire. Cf. Ahmed Issa, A History of
the Mâristân in Islam, p. 230.
78. Al-'Aref, Ibid., pp. 79-82.
79. Al-'Aref, op. cit., p. 82 ; Ad-Dabbâgh, Ibid., p. 221
; Imam Rashâd, The City of Al-Qods, pp.48-49.
Among these : Al-Mu'addhamiyya School, the ruins of which
still exist today between the Gate of Hitta and the Gate of Al-'Utm ;
Al-Badriyyah School ; and Sabeel (the Fountain of) Sha'lân. However,
Al-Mu'addham's pathological apprehension that the Franks may occupy Al-Qods
prompted him to destroy it.
Evidently, his act was badly received by the population of
the city. Grieved and heartbroken, he passed away in 1226 A.D. In 1228 A.D.,
King Al-Kâmil, the brother of King Al-Mu'addham 'Issa, signed with the Franks a
pact whereby he gave up the rule of Al-Qods to Frederick II provided that the
Islamic holy places in this city were left in the hands of the Muslims. Later
on, however, Al-Kâmil's successors managed to liberate this holy city, which
remained under their rule until an accord was signed between the Ayyubid and the
Mameluke princes in 651 A.H./1253 A.D.
to the effect that territories on the west side of the
Jordan River would become Mameluke provinces while those on the east side would
become Ayyubid
provinces. (80) Accordingly, in 1253 A.D. Al-Qods became Mameluke territory.
(81)
Because of its character as a spiritual and holy city,
Al-Qods was the object of the Mamelukes' care and interest. Hence, it was only
natural that the sultans should make every effort to make close to them the
city's general population as well as its scholars and jurisconsults. Moreover,
the repeated conflicts between Christians and Muslims and the recovery of the
city of
Al-Qods by Salâhuddîn Al-Ayyûbi conferred on it special importance. (82)
Sultan Ad-Dhâhir Baybars I was a Mameluke ruler who took
the greatest care of Al-Qods, which he visited in 1262 and again in 1265 A.D.
Other sultans, like Sayfuddîn Qalâoun, Annaser Mohammed Ibn Qalâun and Al-Ashraf
Qaytubay, followed in his footsteps. The cultural institutions that they founded
in Al-Qods are still extant and their architecture is of magnificent beauty.
The Mamelukes have constructed in Al-Qods over fifty
schools, seven hospices, and dozens of zâouias. In 777 A.H., they removed this
city out of the suzerainty of Damascus and turned it into an autonomous
principality (Cf. the chapter on "the Evolution of the Administrative Status of
Al-Qods") which
became dependent upon the Sultanate of Egypt. (83)
80. Al-'Aref, Ibid., pp. 84-85 ; Ad-Dabbâgh, Ibid., p. 221
; Imam Rashâd, the City of Al-Qods, pp. 48-49.
81. Imam Rashâd, Ibid., p. 56.
82. Imam Rashâd, Ibid., p. 61 ; Al-'Aref, op. cit., pp.
87-88.
83. Palestine Encyclopedia, Vol. 3, p. 513. Imam Rashâd
notes in The City of Al-Qods (p. 62) that Sultan Al-Dhâhir (Baybars I)
visited Al-Qods four times : in 661 A.H./1262 A.D. ; 662
A.H./1263 A.D. ; 664 A.H./1265 A.D. ; & 668 A.H./1269 A.D.
The extension of Al-Qods to the north : the Muslim
quarters of Al-Mas'ûdî,
Wâdî Al-Jawz, and Sheikh Jarrâh.
Thus, in the Mameluke reign, Al-Qods had become an outstanding cultural and
scientific centre which topped other centers in the Islamic world and which drew
into itself students, scholars, and juriconsults from all parts of the world.
The many schools built in that era as well as the valuable
documents found in the Mosque of Al-Aqsa and dating back to the Mameluke dynasty
all bear witness to this situation. The documents in question contain a list of
schools and pious endowments (waqfs) at the time. The income from such
endowments was used to cover students' and instructors' expenses. It should be
noted that pious endowments played a preponderant role in the funding of
education in the Mameluke era, and that whenever such funds ceased, the schools
closed down
and the instructors stopped teaching. (84)
Although the city of Al-Qods in the Ayyubid and Mameluke
eras knew definite prosperity, it did not escape periods of trouble. When unrest
occurred, lack of security was sorely felt, and the city sometimes suffered from
pillage and vandalism. The following are some of the widely known periods of
trouble :
1. After the assassination of Sultan 'Izzuddîn Ayback by
his wife Shajar Addourr, his son was installed as his successor ; however,
because of his minority, it was actually Prince Sayfuddîn Qotr who ruled as the
regent. This power intrigue did not please the Mamelukes who lived in Al-Qods
and who revolted against this ruler from Egypt. Thus, they declared allegiance
to the Ayyubid Sultan Al-Mughît of
Al-Kûrk (85) , in whose name the Friday sermon was delivered in
mosques. On the other hand, the Mamelukes of Egypt soon
counteracted by saving Al-Qods from the conspirators' hands and bringing the
city back under the rule of the Mameluke dynasty in
Egypt after a few months' insubordination (86) … the first of its kind in
Egyptian Mameluke control of Al-Qods.
2. Among other troublesome events, Al-Qods was repeatedly
raided by Mongols whose attacks spared none of the cities throughout Al-Shâam.
One can mention the invasion led by Ghâzân bin Arghûn, 84. Al-'Aref, The History
of Al-Qods, pp. 88-89.
Palestine Encyclopedia, Vol. 3, p. 513.
Imâm Rashâd, Ibid., pp. 63-81. 'Ashûr Sa'id Abdulfattâh, Al-Qods, pp. 89-92.
Proceedings of the Third Congress on the History of Al-Shâam (Palestine), Vol.
1. 85. A peace treaty signed between Mamelukes and Ayyubids designated
territories west of the Jordan River as Mameluke provinces and those to the east
of it as Ayyubid provinces. Accor-dingly, Al Kûrk was an Ayyubid province.
86. Imam Rashâd, Ibid., p. 84.
who occupied Damascus, Gaza, and Al-Qods, and who located
great
fortunes, by the account of the historian, Ibn Al-Wardî. (87) One can
also mention the invasion of Timûr Lank (Tamerlane), who occupied Damascus.
Although he never managed to occupy Al-Qods, his cruelty was such that the
spiritual leaders of Al-Qods designated a notable man amongst them, Sheikh Fûlâd
bin Abdullah, and entrusted him with the task of delivering to Tamerlane the
keys to the Holy Places that he might be persuaded to spare Al-Qods suffering
and looting at the time of its imminent conquest.
Fortunately, however, while the Sheikh was on his way to
meet Tamerlane in Damascus, he learned that the latter had sought other
destinations; the holy city was thus spared from his invasion. (88)
3. There were also Bedouin attacks which emanated from the
areas around Al-Qods, and which were particularly repeated during extended
periods of drought and were cause of disorder and highway banditism. Al-Maqrîzî
states that, in 748 A.H./1346 A.D., the prices of food products soared to such
an extent that Bedouins
unhesitatingly attacked the city and plundered its wealth (89) .
Al-Hanbalî describes such attacks in these terms : "The Bedouins
penetrated the city, plundered practically everything, and wrecked
every part of it (…) It was an outrage never seen before." (90)
4. In 885 A.H./1480 A.D., the King's representative in
Al-Qods, Nâssiruddîn bin Ayyûb, in his eagerness to put an end to Bedouin
attacks, had some individuals from the Banî-Zeid tribe arrested and executed ;
but this measure only brought out fierce Bedouin reactions. Indeed, they renewed
their wrecking of the city,
plundering its shops (91) and smashing the doors of its prisons. The
governor of the city took flight, and anarchy reigned supreme. The
whole imbroglio turned the city into a hellish place. (92)
Among the internal disturbances in the Mameluke era,
particularly in the reign of Qaytbay, was a conflict between the inspector of
the Holy Places and the representative of the Sultan in Al-Qods. The city's
popu-lation
itself became involved in this conflict and anarchy returned. (93)
87. Ibn Al-Wardî, Tatimmatu Al-Mukhtassar fi Akhbâr
Al-Bashar (1868), Vol .2.
88. Al-Unsu Al-Jalîl, Vol. 2, p. 514.
89. Al-Maqrîzî, As-Soulûk li Ma'rifati Douwwal al-Moulûk,
Vol. 2, Chapter III, pp. 740-798,
90. Al-Unsu Al-Jalîl, Vol. 2, p. 656.
91. Imâm Rashâd, Ibid., pp. 87-88.
92. Al-Unsu Al-Jalîl, Vol. 2, p. 656.
93. Al-'Aref, The History of Al-Qods, p. 98.
5. There were also discords between Muslims and Jews about
a house in
The Muslims were not happy with this decision and
complained to
They were not freed until the revolt was over. (94)
Most historians state that Sultan Selim I occupied Al-Qods
in 1517 A.D. in
The restoration of the wall of Al-Qods took five years
(1536-1540 A.D.) ;
94. Al-'Aref, Ibid., pp. 99 and 100.
were built. The Dome of the Rock was renovated and new
tiling was laid on its
With the ascension of the throne by Sultan Murâd IV in
1622 A.D.,
96. Al-'Aref, Ibid. p. 105. Palestine Encyclopedia, Vol. 3, p. 542.
(Turkish) baths, eighteen fountains, and various tekkiyye
(dervish convents)
In 1824 A.D., there were uprisings subsequent to the heavy
taxation
When the Ottoman sultan learned of this new uprising, he
instructed that it
In 1831 A.D., the Egyptian Ibrahim Pasha conquered Al-Qods
and all of
101. Al-'Aref, Ibid., p. 110.
only the Jews and the Christians welcomed him. The
surrender of the Muslims of
All these disturbances, which shook up Al-Qods in this
era, did not
Moreover, nepotism and favouritism had decreased and an
interest in
Victory in this war was, as everybody knows, a victory of
the Turkish side
Al-Qods became an independent principality in 1871. Its
streets and
A map of Al-Qods in the 6th century A.D. on a mosaic plate
The year 1882 A.D. saw the promulgation of the Ottoman
decree
This decree was subsequently amended, however, to allow
Jews to get into
1892 A.D. saw the construction of the Municipal Hospital,
located near
Subsequent to the revolution in 1908 A.D. of the Young
Turks, who let the
When the Young Turks gave up their liberal program and
advocated a
The Ottoman Turks lost the war and Al-Qods fell to the
British on
Martial law was proclaimed in Al-Qods under General Bill
Borton, who
The establishing of the British mandate caused great
disappointment to
105. Al-'Aref, The History of Al-Qods, pp. 128-129.
The mandated State in Palestine implemented a policy whose
main
Under the British mandate, the Palestinian nationalist
movement led strong
The action of the Palestinian national movement is notably
demonstrated
and did not end until the leaders of the Arab States intervened. (108) In a
general
"Under
the British Occupation, the Palestinian people continually
107. Al-'Aref, Ibid., p. 141. Emile Al-Ghûrî, The Royal Commission Bulletin, pp.
18-19. |
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