Contents

Introduction

These are brief remarks regarding the universal character of Islam, the great religion which God has chosen -as stated in the Holy Quran and the Prophetic traditions (sunna)- to be the seal of all heavenly religions, that humanity may find in it happiness in this life and in the hereafter. God Almighty has, through this religion, promulgated an international law valid for Muslims as well as others: that religious freedom should be guaranteed to all people, so that no coercion or oppression against anyone in matters of religion be permitted. These norms have been observed by the Prophet (peace be upon him), by the Righteous Caliphs and by all Muslims since the early Muslim conquests. Islam is thus the only religion in the lands of which people of all religions, heavenly or pagan, lived freely, with their temples and possessions protected, and enjoyed the services of special courts of their own, whether these be church-based tribunals or otherwise, headed by leaders from their own ranks.

Among the most important signs of Islam’s universality is the fact that it had opened its lands to protect minorities (Ahl al-Dhimma, or people of the covenant) and permitted them to join the Muslims on equal footing in all areas of economic endeavour, whether in agriculture, industry or commerce. Many amongst them consequently attained great wealth, symbolised by the status of “Maria the Copt,” the lady who hosted the Caliph al-Mamoun and his entourage when they passed by her estate during a visit to Egypt. Even official posts were open to minorities from the time of the Caliph Mu’awiya and his son Yazid. The Abbasids widened the opportunities of employment in the state for minorities, leading many to attain the highest posts up to that of vizier or chief minister, as happened in Iran and Iraq during the Buwayhid era, and in Egypt during the Fatimid and Tolounid periods. Coexistence was strengthened by the participation of Muslims in the festivals and holidays of non-Muslims, especially those of Christians and Magians. The protected minorities did pay jizyah, which was not a “religious tax” as is often thought, but a defence tax, paid solely by able-bodied men in lieu of military service, since they were exempt from joining the Muslim armies. This tax never exceeded one dinar per year in any case.

This fruitful coexistence and cooperation in the economic sphere was strengthened by another and higher form of coexistence in the intellectual sphere, where non-Muslims transferred the treasures of science and philosophy from Greek, Persian and Indian sources into Arabic. The Muslims quickly assimilated these sciences and made outstanding contributions of their own to them, producing scientists of international standing in the areas of chemistry, mathematics and medicine, as well as internationally recognized philosophers who laid the foundations of Islamic philosophy. As a result the Muslim world continued -alone- in the leadership of world civilisation in the realms of science and philosophy for six centuries, from the second to the eighth hijri(1) centuries (8th to 14th AD). This international leadership role in all fields of civilisation has been the subject of large volumes written by Western scholars. During these periods, extensive intellectual and theological debates between Muslims and scholars from the protected minorities were quite frequent. Muslim theologians welcomed the intellectual challenge and continued to promote debates in their discussions, meetings, which shows the highest level of religious tolerance and respect for intellectual freedom, due to the universality of Islam which treated all equally.

God has willed Islam to be a rational religion, and thus its claim to truth was not backed -as was the case with earlier revelations- with observable miracles. Muslims were, instead, asked to employ their intellect and reason to contemplate the signs of God’s power in the universe, and to reflect on the intricate and wise laws which the Almighty has manifested therein, so that they may bear witness, rationally and knowingly, that this universe was the work of a Lord who had created and perfected it. God also urged the Prophet (peace be upon him) and the Muslims to invite others to Islam through wisdom, good preaching and considerate debate, all of which were employed by the Almighty himself in the Quran. Wisdom here refers to rational proofs and arguments demonstrating the existence and unity of God. God has also made ample use of good preaching through relating the stories of earlier prophets and warning of punishment in the hereafter. He also used gentle debate and argument often. God and His Prophet made reason an arbiter in Shari’a (Islamic Law) and a major principle -after Quran and sunna- for deriving and elaborating its many subsidiary rules. God and His Prophet have also unequivocally commanded the believers to shun all superstition, magic, astrology and soothsayers’ practices, so that human reason could be purified from belief in falsehoods. This emphasis on reason ensured that Islamic Shari’a, revealed to direct the whole of humanity, was built on firm foundations of lofty reason.

Islam embraced learning from the first verses of the Quran revealed to the Prophet, and God exalted the pursuit of learning above the angels’ constant glorification the Almighty, while the Prophet praised learning extensively. The Holy Quran, through its repeated references to the scientific truths in the realms of the natural sciences, astronomy and medicine, had directed the attention of Muslims to these sciences and led them to seek after them from foreign sources once they managed to settle in the newly Islamised lands. As a result, they had the available scientific knowledge translated faithfully from its Persian, Indian and Greek sources, just as they availed themselves of Greek philosophical heritage. A great public library was established during the reigns of the caliphs al-Rashid and al-Mamoun. Religious sciences prospered, as did linguistic and ancient sciences, helped by the proliferation of private, public and mosque libraries and the existence of numerous translators, copyists and booksellers in every Arab country. Philosophy and scientific knowledge were disseminated among all classes, even among the lower classes, while universities and schools proliferated. Women were also prominent participants in this scientific renaissance. Some of our intellectuals have read in Western sources about the intense conflict between church and state in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries because of the Church’s stance against science and scientists, so they mistakenly applied these concepts to Islam. However, Islam does not have a church and it has not -as we have seen- opposed science; quite the contrary, it pushed the Muslims to take a leading international role in the promotion of science and learning.

God enjoins His Prophet and the Muslims to adhere to justice without which humanity as a whole cannot attain to the good life. God says in the Quran that He has created the whole universe, its creatures and everything in it in conformity with the principles of justice, that people may emulate His works. He commands them to adhere to justice in weights and measures, amongst themselves, in their worship of Him, in their relations with family members, relatives and neighbours and in all that they say or do. God informs the Muslims that: “Thus have We made you an Ummah justly balanced”(2) (Al-Baqarah: 143) meaning that they are fair, inclining to the just mean in everything, not going to excess nor falling short, even in charity and worship, since Islam does not condone monasticism and similar excesses. God and His Prophet continuously emphasised justice in judging between litigants, while God calls repeatedly for social justice between rich and poor through alms and zakah (mandatory contribution prescribed in Islam, to be collected from the rich and distributed to the poor and needy) and regards this as an act of worship on par with prayer. Thus Islam has resolved for humanity this perennial problem: the problem of poverty, while Communism attempted to resolve it through oppression and depriving man of his wealth and freedom, together with the advocacy of atheism and rebellion against God and His religions, and it was therefore inevitable that it should collapse.

God has also ordained -in His Shari’a- equality for all human beings in duties and rights, so that no one could lord it over others. Islam has also abolished the status of an ecclesiastical class and did not condone the rise of a special “holy class” of people to place itself as an intermediary between man and God, since all humans are equal in the eyes of their Lord, regardless of race, origin or colour. The Prophet has set a high example by maintaining equality between himself and his Companions. Equality between Muslims develops into intimate brotherhood, the most prominent example of which was the brotherhood between the Muhajirun (“emigrants” from Makkah to Madinah) and Ansar (“supporters,” the local Muslims of Madinah) in early Islam. The Prophet also adhered to strict equality when implementing legal punishments, countenancing no exceptions. Because of this spirit of equality, no form of class divisions ever emerged in Muslim societies, while Islam abolished the class and caste systems that existed in some of its lands, as was the case in Iran and India. God has made tolerance -in His Islamic Shari’a- a fundamental principle. God also commands the Muslims to be tolerant towards pagans and give charity to their poor, and forgive the oppressors and tyrants among them who had tortured and abused the Muslims. The Prophet had set a fine example in forgiveness when he pardoned his bitterest enemies after the conquest of Makkah. In compliance with the injunctions of God, Muslims exemplified tolerance in their conduct with those who lived with them in their lands. A spirit of friendliness and cooperation prevailed between them and their Christian neighbours, while the Jews enjoyed excellent treatment in the lands of Islam, especially in Muslim Spain and the Maghreb, for century after century. However, we regretfully see them today drive Muslim Palestinians from their lands and subject them to vicious treatment.

God has also enjoined the strengthening of family bonds so that they may never fray, starting with the kindness enjoined between parents and children. Among the many bonds decreed to cement family relations is the bond of inheritance, in which God awarded the male twice the share of the female in recognition of his greater responsibilities. Marriage was also consecrated as a holy bond, entered into in front of God, who had created love and kindness between man and woman, and by His will, God has also made it the man’s duty to support the family. Islam also decreed equality between men and women in social and political responsibility, and in the right to work, which enabled women -in the present age- to take up all positions, including ministries, and even occupy the position of Prime Minister in some Muslim countries. Islam also guaranteed economic independence for women in a manner not known in the West until today. The contribution of women in the fields of learning and literature had been considerable from very early on in Islam, and I have no doubt that Western awareness of the position enjoyed by women in Muslim Spain was the main incentive for people there to try to raise the status of women in their lands, and it is only appropriate for the West today to emulate the achievements of Muslim societies in strengthening family bonds.

God enjoins all humanity to adhere to a great range of virtues, including -as mentioned above- the exercise of rational judgement, the love of learning, equality between all men and women and tolerance with all religious communities. These virtues are connected to others which contribute to human happiness in this life and the next: the virtue of work, so that a person will not have to be dependent on others; keeping promises and covenants; kindness to man and all creatures, to the extent that Islam is called the “religion of mercy”; truthfulness, humility, modesty, civility, patience, chastity, forgiveness, care for the orphans. God also called on the believers to shun a range of sinful activities, such as adultery, partaking of alcohol, gambling, usury, arrogance, false testimony, injustice, lying, envy, cheating, abusing of man or beast, defamation, ridicule, false accusations, suspicion, spying, back-biting, spreading evil and gloating over the misfortune of others.

God and His Prophet also prescribe an etiquette governing conduct at gatherings and discussion or learning sessions. Among these is the requirement to make room for newcomers and the prohibition against the rising of people already seated in honour of a new arrival. When visiting someone, a person must ask permission to enter, and when people meet, they are to greet each other. The recommended salutation is to wish the person peace, and the same form of greeting is also used in obligatory daily prayers. “Peace” is also one of God’s Holy Names, thus signifying God’s desire to impel all to spread peace on earth, that nations may incline to it and love and compassion prevail among all. Islam has thus been leading the call for peace for fourteen centuries.

I have no doubt that the early generation of Muslims in the first century after hijrah were acutely aware of these aspects of the universal dimension of Islam, and that is why they laboured to propagate it with diligence, managing to reach with it half the world population of their time with its message. They have taken it as far as Tropical Africa, Central Asia, reaching the lands of Turks and Mongols, China, India, Malaysia, Indonesia and Southern Philippines. There is hardly a country in Central Africa which does not count tens of thousands of Muslims among its inhabitants, and it is the same with Latin America, the United States, Canada and Europe. Muslims today number more than seven hundred millions, and it is their duty to make other nations aware of the teachings of Islam and its values, enjoined by God for the benefit of humanity as a whole, to help it achieve its aspirations of happiness in this life and the next.

It is hoped that -with this introduction- I have been able to give a brief overview of the topics to be covered in this work on the universality of Islam: this great divine religion. And I doubt not that it is going to be followed by works that are more comprehensive and much more accurate and profound. And it is to God alone that I appeal for guidance and success.

Shawqi Dayf

Cairo, Rajab, AH 1417

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1) The Muslim calendar starts from the date of the Prophet’s hijrah (migration) from Makkah to Madinah in the year 622AD. When dual dates are used in the text, we will put the hijri date first, e.g. 1/622.

2) Translator’s note:

We have adopted here and in all subsequent translations of Quranic verses the translation of ‘Abdullah Yusuf ‘Ali, (New Revised Edition, Amana Corporation, Brentwood, Md., USA, 1989). The term used in this verse to describe the Muslim community is actually Ummat-an Wasat-an (a community of the middle, or a median community, signifying moderation and the approximation to the just mean, as the author explains).

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