CHAPTER FOUR
Heba Nael Barakat

An Overview of The First Manuscripts of The Qur’an

And of Modern Editions

Section One : Samples of Qur’anic Manuscripts of the First Century of the Hegira

Section Two : Mushafs and the Evolution of Arabic Transcription

Section Three : The Printed Mushafs

 ___________________________________________________________________

Preamble

A special care has been taken of the Qur’an in Islamic countries. It has been written by hand, and authenticated. Its calligraphy has also been carefully handled and adorned. Therefore, it has always been presented in the best way possible. Throughout historical periods, Moslems insisted that its copies be exact replica of authenticated copies of the Qur’an. They showed their pride for the Othmani manuscripts of the Holy book, which were written in the Medina during Othman’s Caliphate. Copies of them were sent to many provinces, to be taken as references for later copies to be made in different countries.

It is a great pleasure for us to present, in this study, samples of photographed old manuscripts, and to follow up by analysis, the spreading of those hand-made copies of the Holy Qur’an throughout the world, comparing them to the printed Qur’an that we have today.

In order to gain cognizance of the great importance of these copies of the Qur’an, it is very useful to know how the Qur’an was assembled and recorded. But, in order to avoid repetition, the reader is invited to consult the third part of this study. As for this chapter, it will be divided into two sections:

- Section one: This section reviews the different aspects of Arabic spelling in the early times of Islam, and presents samples of the Qur’anic manuscripts that were made then. It also mentions the places where these documents can be found today, and gives information about their preservation state. In addition, photographic representations of them are presented.

- Section two: Comparing samples of hand-made copies to the ancient and modern printed editions of the Holy Qu’ran.

Section One
Samples of Qur’anic manuscripts of the first century of Hegira

The main question that arises in this section is : What remains of the original manuscripts of the Qur’an? There is no doubt that all the first Othmani “Mushafs” (copies of the Qur’an in book form) were, all the time, kept in the principal Mosques of Moslem societies and great care and respect were shown towards them by rulers and religious leaders. Besides, they have always been a source of pride for Moslems, within their families and in their Mosques.

In the early part of the twentieth century, a lot of copies of the Qur’an were stolen and taken to the West by colonizers and Orientalists. In this regard, we can recall what happened after the First World War, when Russian soldiers stole a lot of old manuscripts from Cairo and brought them to the National Library in Saint Petersburg. In the same way, old “Mushafs” were taken by Turks from the Prophet’s Mosque in the Medina to Istambul. It is said that these were written by the two Caliphs Othman Ibn ‘Affân and ‘Alî Ibn Abî Tâlib (may Allah be pleased with them).

The ancient manuscripts of the Qur’an can be subdivided into groups. The oldest of them didn’t contain any vowel symbols or diacritic dots or ornamentation. The calligraphy in them is that of Al Hijâz (the old Kufî calligraphy). It is certain that these were copied from the “Mushaf Al Imam”, the (Chief Mushaf). Then, diacritic symbols and vowels were added to copies of the “Mushaf Al Imam”, in later times. These latter versions became the models that people followed to produce new copies, this time around with dots and vowels. It is to be noted that most of these “Mushafs” were written during the first fifty years from the time when revelation descended on Mohammed (PBBUH). That is to say, they were established during the seventh century A.D / the first century of the Hegira, (A.H).

Some of these old manuscripts were said to be written by Othman and Ali themselves, in their own handwriting, from the “Mushaf Al Imam” (The chief original written Qur’an). Of these manuscripts, mention can be made of the following:

- “Mushaf Karîm” (Holy Book): illustration 1: kept in “Dâr Al-Kutub Al-Misriyya” in Bolâq. Record number 139, Rubric: “Masahif” (Copies of the Qur’an).

Remarks

The Kûfî handwriting is void of vowels and of diacritic marks. There is little adornment of some of the Surahs names. The end of a Surah and the beginning of another are indicated by a space of at least one line.

Some additions, made later, are to be seen, but in different colors of ink. Letters occupy two lines, and lines are equally spaced. A microfilm of this document is available in “Dar Al-Kutub Al-Misriyya”, for easier consultation without any risk of damage to this valuable manuscript.

Verses of the Holy Qur’an: (illustration 2)

Remarks:

- Long letters that occupy two lines.

- No diacritic symbols.

- Leather (parchment) of blue color and golden graphics.

Another copy of these first Qur’anic manuscripts is that of Tashkand, in the Uzbakistan Republic. In its turn, it is written in ancient Kûfî writing, free of diacritics and attributed to Othmân Ibn ‘Affân. A microfilm of it is kept in “Dar Al-Kutub Al-Missriyya”, Rubric: Qur’anic books, No 204.

The size of this Mushaf is 70/50 cm and the number of its sheets is most probably 253, with twelve lines per page. It is written on both sides, with spaces after the end of Surahs and with little ornamentation.

In Istanbul, there are complete manuscripts of the Qur’an, going back to the first century of the Hegira such as:

- A Holy Mushaf, in Kufî script, attributed to Othman Ibn ‘Affân (may Allah be pleased with him), in the Nûr Uthmania Library, No 23.

- A Holy Mushaf attributed to ‘Alî Ibn Abî Tâlib, in the same library, Number 25.

- A Holy Mushaf in Kûfî script, attributed to ‘Alî Ibn Abî Tâlib in Sulaymâniah – Hamidiyyah-, Number 3.

- A Holy Mushaf in Kûfî script attributed to ‘Alî Ibn Abî Tâlib, in the Museum of Tubqa Bosray, Number 8 A-2. The number of its pages is 300. It was written in the year 29 of the Hegira(*).

From all this, we conclude that the Prophet’s Companions, those like ‘Alî Ibn Abî Tâlib, wrote copies of the Holy Qur’an from the “Chief Mushaf”, in their own handwriting.

Places Where Some Ancient Manuscripts Are Kept:

1- The National Library of Paris, 53, KFQ, (Khalîlî’s Collection of Islamic Art)

2- The National Institute of Arts and Archeology. Tunis 197 Rutbî Ms R.N

3- The Museum of Fine Arts - Boston 686.33 MS

4- The Art Museum, Harvard University 23.1967.MS

5- Chester Betty library, number 1405.MS

6- Personal Collections:

-  Collection of Rif‘at Shîshî Al ‘Arab. Paris

-  Collection of Prince Sadr Ed-Dine Agha Khan. Geneva.

Some of these manuscripts were sold by auction in Galleries like Sotheby’s Gallery (England) in 1984 (lot 147).

The manuscripts in which the diacritic marks are differently colored:

These marks (dots) can be divided up as follows:

- A dot over the letter is to convey the sound “a”.

- A dot on the side of the letter stands for the sound “o”.

- A dot beneath the letter stands for the sound “i”.

This was Abû Al-Aswad Ad-Du’alî’s way of putting diacritic marks. And old Mushafs containing this sort of dotting were probably written before his death, which occurred in 99 of the Hegira Calendar.

The main samples of this sort are:

1- The “Holy Mushaf”, in Cairo (Illustration 3):

It contains diacritic dots in red colour

Remarks

This manuscript was among the collection of Prince Omar Sultân. Then it was transferred to Dar Al-Kutub, then to the Islamic Museum in Cairo. Due to the absence of binding, its first pages are damaged. There is no microfilm of it, nor was it the subject of any thorough study.

2- Separate sheets/papers in Kûfî script (illustrations 4.5.6):

Places where other manuscripts are found:

1- The As-Sulaymaniah Library, Record No MS 23

2- The Khalîlî’s Collection of Islamic Art. No KFQ 64

3- The Museum of Islamic Art, in Kairauan (Tunisia).

4- The Toub Kabi Serai Library, Record Number MS E.H 30

5- The National Library of Paris. Record Number MS.ARAB 5178

F III 73

6- The National Library of Tunis. Record No MS. Rutbi, 198.

Many manuscripts are kept in the National Libraries of most European countries as well as in other countries.

3. Two pages of the “Holy Mushaf”, in Paris (Illustration 7):

Kept in the National Library of Paris. Record Number: Arabic-342. from 8K-9 Number, concerning the Surahs of Yûnus and Hûd.

Remarks

Small flower-like adornments separate the verses, which were written in Kûfî script. Other plant-like ornaments are used to indicate the Surahs, in golden ink.

Manuscripts of the Second Reform

This is the collection of manuscripts in which were used diacritic marks, to distinguish letters that looked like each other. This was done at the time when Al-Hajjâj Ibn Yûsuf Ath-Thaqafî was governor over Iraq (75-95, Hegira Year), This period was known as the Second Reform. These diacritic marks had a different color from that in which Abû Al-Aswad Ad-Du'alî wrote his, and from that in which other letters were written. But, as it was difficult to follow this style, new symbols were adopted, and replaced those of Ad-Du'alî.

Section Two
Mushafs and the Evolution of Arabic Scripts after the first century of the Hegira

With the great success achieved -through historical development- by Allah’s Holy Book, in which is expressed the divine concluding message, as authentically as it was revealed, people’s desire to acquire the Holy Qur’an and to produce further copies of it increased many folds. This has always meant to them the spreading of knowledge and understanding of Allah’s will and of His heavenly religion throughout the world.

After the first century of the Hegira, the Qur’an became written with vowels and diacritic marks. Besides, beautiful ornaments were added to separate verses.

Documents

1- The oldest of them are made up of a good number of sheets of the holy Qur’an, which are kept in the As-Sulaymania Mosque, under Number 23, and go back to the second century of the Hegira, (the ninth century.A.D). Presented in Kûfî style, and with five lines per page, these documents were written on leather, with red diacritic marks and black slashes. The verses are separated by those ornamental flower-like adornments, (Illustration 1).

2- One sheet of the Holy Qur’an (cf. Illustration 9) was used in an album of historical fragments, dating back to  the time of The Safawids, in Iran. Now, it is kept among the Khalîlî’s Collection of Islamic Art. It contains verses from the Surah of An-Naml, (the Ants), written on leather, fifteen lines per page, and in Kûfî style (extended letters). Black and red diacritic marks help with the distinction of letters and indicate the inflectional changes.

3 - A number of sheets of the Holy Qur’an in the size of 27/37 cm and with fifteen lines per page are written on leather, with golden ink in the Kûfî style (extended letters). Diacritic marks and other symbols are in red and in black colors. They are attributed by some to the Imâm Ali. These sheets are kept in special collections, in Arab and European countries. They are also found in:

-“An-Nûr Al-Uthmaniyya” Library in Istanbul (Illustration number 10), Record, Number Ms.27

4 - Al Khalîlî collection of Islamic Art (Illustration Number 11).

After the third century of Hegira / the tenth A.D, the writing of the Koran was to witness many innovations, like the quiescence marking (absence of the short vowels), geminating, lengthening, the linking and the “Hamza”. Styles of transcription multiplied and every city gave its name to the style that was used in it. There were little differences between them, except in their adornments.

In this way, the writing style knew its evolution from the Kûfî to “Naskhî”, during the epoch of the “Omeyyads”. Thanks to the invention of new pens and to contributions of the new civilizational development encountered in many acquired territories, the transcription progressed considerably, and there appeared the ornamented Kufî style in Cairo. Then, in the era of the “Mameluks”, was invented the “Thuluth” style. In Turkey, were invented the “Diwânî” and the “Royal Hamâyûnî” styles, which reflected the glory of the Ottoman Empire. In Persia, “Mîr Ali At-Tabrizî” and other calligraphers developed “At-Ta‘âlîq” and the “nesta‘liq” styles in the ninth and the tenth centuries of the Hegira (the fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries AD.)

Samples of ancient calligraphies

- A sheet of the Mushaf in Kûfî style, with diacritic marks and ornaments (Illustration 13): the third century of the Hegira.

- A sheet from the Holy Qur’an: written on paper in slanted Kûfî style, from Iraq, in 1092 of the Hegira. It contains the Surahs of Al-‘Alak (The Clot), and Al-Qadr (The Night of Decree). Beautiful ornaments are present. Are also present symbols of adjustment like those of quiescence, geminating, and lengthening (Illustration 14). Presently, it is among the collection of Mahdî Kashanî, in Teheran.

-          From Morocco, there are single pages of the Holy Qur’an in Moroccan style. Written in 1142 of the Hegira / 1730 A.D, they are kept in “Dar Al-Kutub Al-Misriyya”, Library in Cairo, Department of Manuscripts, (Mushafs 25). One of the sheets bears the Surahs of “An-Nasr” (The Help), and “Al-Masad” (The Palm Fiber). The decoration is made up by fine beautiful ornaments. (Illustration 15)

- And from Iran, a sample of oriental Kûfî in ink and gold, written on paper. The content is the Surah of Al-An‘âm (The Cattle). This sheet was bought from the Sotheby’s Auction Agency in England, in 1980 (lot N° 159). Now it is kept among the personal collection of Hâshim Khasrofanî (Illustration N° 16)

Section Three
The Qur’anic Edition

Printing was invented in the 15th century A.D, at the time when Moslem monarchs and Princes were boasting of the transcription of large and beautiful Mushafs, which they donated to their Schools and Mosques. It was then that the first printed Mushaf appeared in Venice by “Paganino de Paginate”, the name by which the Mushaf was known. It was probably printed in the middle of the 16th century A.D. It was followed by a second one, which was printed by the “Seminary of Padua”, also in Venice (Italy), in the year 1698. This edition included two volumes in Arabic, and a brief translation of the Qur’an’s meanings in Latin.

In its turn, the “Henkelmann Publishing House” printed a Mushaf, in Hamburg, Germany. There is a copy of this edition in “Dar Al-Kutub Al-Missriyya, (Mushafs 176), and another in the Library of Cairo University. This edition is in 560 pages, with 16 lines per page, and with a preface in 80 pages.

There are other editions, such as that of Saint Petersburg in Czarist Russia in 1787, that of Kazan in 1803, and that of Leipzig in 1834.

It is not surprising that there were mistakes in these editions of the Holy Qur’an. Yet, they do not seem to have been made on purpose and with bad intentions. It appears that it was due to the editors’ little knowledge of Arabic and the difficulties to decipher the graphics of manuscripts.

During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the number of Qur’anic editions increased throughout the Islamic countries. In Cairo, for instance, the manuscript of Sheikh Mohammed Ali Khalaf Al Husaynî was printed in 1923 and gained a great deal of fame. Then in 1970, it was reprinted under the supervision of a group of erudite men from the Azhar University. Meanwhile the “Commission of fatwas” of Al Azhar made a “Fatwa” (a religious legal opinion) that prohibited the printing of the Holy Qur’an, unless a thorough revision and proofreading were previously undertaken.

There are recent editions of the Holy Book, followed by instructions to the reader geared to enable him to read the Qur’an correctly, and to respect punctuation marks and prosodic features particular to Arabic. Oftentimes, the decision of the commission that agreed on the printing is also added to the edition.

It should be pointed out that printing allowed Moslems to spread the Holy Qur’anic Message in various parts of the world. In the same way, it has helped with the translation of its meanings into many languages. Copies of the Holy Book are available in all sizes, and it is now possible, thanks to modern technology, to listen to it on cassettes and to read it and listen to it through compact discs.

 If we compare the modern editions to the early-transcribed manuscripts, we will certainly have to admire the beauty of the latter, and enjoy the wonders of the Islamic Art (of calligraphy). But, at the same time, we will discover what great efforts were needed to transcribe and decorate a Holy Mushaf of thirty parts.

Illustrations of the Surah of “the opening”, taken from manuscripts written in different epochs:

1. Illustration 17: a copy of the Qur’an of Sultan Sha‘bân (1369 A.D), in Dar Al-Kutub Al-Misriyya (Qur’an 7).

2. Illustration 18: a copy of the Qur’an of Sultan Yersî Bây (1425 A.D), in Dar Al-Kutub Al-Misriyya (Qur’an 96).

3. Illustration 19: a copy of the Qur’an, written by the calligrapher Mahmûd An-Nissabûri (1560 A.D), in the Library of Istanbul University. Record number F. 1426.

4. Illustration 20: a manuscript of the Qur’an, dating back to the 19th century A.D, Top Copy Serial Library number: FH 259

5. Illustration 21: A copy of the edition made in the Medina.

Illustrations of the Surah of “Al Baqarah”(The Cow):

1. Illustration 22: A Othmani manuscript, written in 1543 A.D by the calligrapher Ahmed Kâra Hayssarî (Toub Kabi Serai, Number 999).

2. Illustration 23: A manuscript from Turkmenistan, written in 1830 A.D (Collection of Saîd Dhûl Fiqâr, in Geneva, Switzerland).

3. Illustration 24: A copy of the Edition of the Medina.

This comparison allowed us to analyze the evolution of the scripts of the Qur’an throughout history, and showed us how the words of it never changed in spite of that. On the other hand, the methods of its reciting and of declamation, as well as those governing Arabic inflection, knew constant evolution through time. It also enabled us to conclude that the main difference between the old manuscripts and the modern editions of the Holy Qur’an lies in the fact that the latter made it very easy for people to read it and to spread its divine message for the whole of mankind (in Islamic and non Islamic countries), giving glad tidings and warning.

It is known that the evolution of Arabic has never ceased, but this has not had any effect on the Holy Qur’an. It is as Allah (the Almighty) stated: “Verily, We, it is We who have sent down the Dhikr (i.e.: the Koran), And surely We will guard it (from corruption).” (Surah of “Al-Hijr”, (the Rocky tract); v. 9).

In most Arab countries, the Arabic language is written without vowels (scriptio defectiva), and the “Rok‘a” transcription (a cursive writing) is adopted so as to make transcription easier. However, this mode of writing hides the “teeth” of some letters and hence (( _  _ are written  (...  ...). Besides, it joins the dots of letters so that (í _ _ _  are written (... ... ... ...), and so on. 

In any case, all linguists know that, thanks to the Koran, Arabic has managed to resist the sort of radical changes and transformations that many languages underwent. And the slight variations that may be noticed in some Qur’anic words, are not transcription mistakes, rather they reflect the sanctioned variant readings of the Qur’an. For this reason, specialists decided to adopt the seven known recitals in the recording of the Qur’an and its publications. This is because it was proven that they had no effect on the unity of the Qur’anic verses, nor on its Surahs and their meanings.

Conclusion

To conclude, we would like to draw attention to the fact that a large number of manuscripts are forbidden to handle, the pretext being that they need to be protected from loss and from deterioration. These are kept in the libraries of many countries, and widely distributed in the collections of amateurs of ancient objects. Besides, some are dispersed in fragments, kept in different parts of the world: a fragment in Paris, another in Rome and a third one in the U.S.A, while others are kept in Islamic countries. In some cases, the manuscripts lose their value and meanings, as their owners split them and sold their sheets separately.

These documents represent our religion, our culture and our heritage. Therefore, it is our duty to preserve them for the sake of our future generations, and for the sake of the whole mankind. Besides, in addition to their scientific value, they are the main historical bases for the art of Arabic Calligraphy, as well as a good illustration of the evolution in the pronunciation of words.

The first manuscripts of the Qur’an are of great importance, because they were written by the Prophet’s Companions and by the Orthodox Caliphs. Moreover, they assume two important functions: first, they are means to safeguard the Holy Qur’an, and to ensure its transmission from generation to generation; second, they are the living proofs of the authenticity of a Divine Message revealed from Heaven, and imparted by Mohammed (PBBUH), the seal of the Prophets and Messengers.

Because of this, it is everyone’s duty to contribute to the preservation of these documents, rather than seek easy gains through them. This being so, it is an obligation to gather them, to take the most care of them and be proud of them, as they are a part of our civilizational heritage. As such they belong to all Moslems, as well as to everyone who is aware of their value and contributes to their preservation (Moslem and non Moslem). They carry the Final Message to be revealed to mankind.

Meanwhile, it is necessary to find a solution that will take into consideration the necessity to preserve ancient manuscripts from deterioration while affording the learned people an easy access to them so that they may consult them and benefit from them. That is because forbidding the consultation and the manipulation of these documents keeps their value hidden from people, and especially the researchers among them. Yet, at the same time, it is necessary to prevent excessive use of them, as this may lead to their deterioration. This may be possible through making microfilms of these documents and recording their contents on C.D ROM’s. In this way, people may consult them, and also appreciate their wonderful colors and adornments. In this respect, computers are very useful. They allow us to study these documents and to analyze them in whatever way we would like. It is even possible to record them, with all their colors, on compact discs and present them through the World Wide Web (Internet). In this way, everyone is able to have copies of them on paper, pictures, etc. to keep, without causing any harm to the original documents.

In the end, I would like to suggest that our schools add to their curricula a teaching subject, concerned with a simplified outline of the history of the recording of the Qur’an, as well as with exhibiting samples of the original manuscripts of the Qur’an. The reason for this lies in the fact that they are among the pillars of our religion, of our history, as well as of our civilization and culture. Besides, this would convey the awareness of their existence and of their importance in our lives.

In the same respect, I would like to urge all the libraries of the world to cooperate in collecting all the copies of the Qur’an, kept in their collections, for the purpose of publishing them. I also would like to request researchers to double their efforts because there will certainly come a day when future generations will look for the sources of guidance and will need to authenticate their knowledge. We have no right to hide from anyone the knowledge of the ultimate message and its first origins.

References

1. The microfilmed manuscripts of Dâr Al-Kutub Al-Misriyya.

2. The microfilmed manuscripts of the Arab Institute of Manuscripts, Cairo.

3. Karl Bruckelmann: “History of Arab Literature” (in English and in Arabic - Dâr Al-Ma‘ârif Al-Misriyya – 1959 (Translation of Abd Al-Halîm An-Najjâr).

4. Adolph Gruhmann: “From the World of Papayri”. Al Ma‘ârif Press. Cairo 1952.

5. Ghanêm Kaddûri Al Ahmad: “The scripts of the Koran” – A linguistic and historical study”. Baghdad – 1982.

6. Su‘âd Mâher: “Mash had Al Imâm Ali fî Najaf”. Dâr Al-Ma‘ârif- 1308 of the Hijra – Cairo.

7. ‘Abd As-Sabûr Shâhîn: “History of the Koran”. Dâr Al-Kalam – 1966.

8. Mohammad Hamîdu Allah Al Haydarâbâdî: “ Historical Documents of the Times of the Prophet and the Orthodox Caliphs”. Cairo 1941.

9. Naser An-Naqashbandî: “The Holy Koran in the Beginning of Islam”. Sumer magazine. Vol. XII. 1956.

10. Naser An-Naqashbandî: “Genesis of the Arabic scripts and its evolution until the epoch of the Orthodox Caliphs”. Sumer magazine. Vol. XIII, 1947.

(*) See the general index of the Arab-Islamic heritage (Manuscripts). Published by the Royal Academy of Studies on Islamic Civilization, Institute Al-Albayt,  Maâb,-Jordan- Vol. 1, p. 3].