Chapter IV
Emphasizing Religious and Civilisational Features and Sublime Values in Islamic Arts

A/ Religion and Civilisation

A/1- Monotheism is grounded in an ancient principle which appeared in Mesopotamia, the place where faith in the God of heavens and earth first started. The Prophet Abraham was a messenger of this religion and preached it after he made the move from Mesopotamia to Great Syria (Al Sham).

Islam had been established upon faith in Allah, the Cherisher and Sustainer of the worlds. Abraham did believe in the Uniqueness of Allah. For Allah is one and no gods join Him as conveyed in this verse: “He begetteth not, nor is He begotten and there is none like unto Him”. [ikhlãs]. (There is nothing whatever like unto Him) [Qur'an].

Allah is Eternal (He is the First and the Last) [Qur'an]. And (He is all-knowing and capable), and (knows what is hidden and what is invisible). Furthermore, Allah is far beyond all beings and things and far beyond any power, volume or limit. He is the High Ideal and the Great Secret. Allah is beyond the universe because it is He who created it.

A/2- Allah’s meanings were depicted in the Qur’an in the Nur Surat: “Allah is the Light of the heavens and the earth”. [Nur:36]. He is the hazy streak from which heaven and earth were formed. (“The parable of His light is as if there were a niche and within a lamp: the lamp enclosed in glass: the glass as it were a brilliant star”) [Qur'an]. This is a literary image to clarify the divine meaning. (“Lit from a blessed tree, an olive, neither of the East nor of the West”). This means that the fuel of this light came from an undetermined time or place. (“Whose oil is well-nigh luminous though fire scarce touched it”). Allah is from Light and not from fire. (“Light upon light”) meaning that His Light is absolute. (“Allah doth guide whom He will to His light”). Allah guides the righteous to discover his secret.

The faith in Allah is manifest through the endeavour to discover His Secret, i.e. the secret of the eternal existence. Allah endowed human beings with knowledge and mind so that they discover the secrets of existence. Man’s relation to the universe is that of knowledge whereas man’s relation with his God is that of allegiance and worship, (of His worshippers, the scholars are the ones that fear Allah most). Allah honoured scholars and urged them to discover. Allah says “There is no god but He : That is the witness of God, His angels and those endued with knowledge, standing firm on justice” (Ali’Imran :18)

A/3 The ideal meaning of Allah makes Him a refuge sought by the faithful who strive to know Him through His creations and manifestations in the universe. The degree of faith of a faithful person is determined by the extent of his refuge in Allah with the aim of looking into the secret of the existence (whatever Allah has got is blessed and more). Islam, the religion of uniqueness, is thus a mandatory civilisational doctrine, and he who does not believe in it, is not forgiven (Allah forgiveth not (the sin) of joining other gods with Him; but He forgiveth whom He pleaseth other sins than this). (Nisa :48)

B/ Prohibition of  Representation in Art

B/1- Some intellectual matters were dealt with by religious scholars without delving into details nor presenting sufficient refutation. At times, these issues were even tackled with fanaticism and antagonism, foremost among them is the issue of prohibition of representation in painting. This issue has been raised by orientalists since the 30’s of this century. Then it has been taken up by religious scholars who based their arguments on the positions of some modernists such as Nawawi who absolutely confirmed the prohibition of painting in the Hadith “Those mostly punished on the Day of Judgement are those painters who emulate Allah’s creations”. There are other Hadiths along the same line but which do not explain the reason for prohibition, except some justifications given by grammarians such as Abu Ali Farissi who said, on the basis of grammatical rules, that the reason behind prohibition is to prevent the  portrayal of Allah in body image so as not to fall into the trap of idolatry and paganism. For this is undisputedly unbelief. Another reason advanced was to preclude the painter from claiming his ability to depict beings and thus going beyond the limits of the Creator and Bestower of forms.

In all his books, especially Al-Isharat Al-Ilahiya (Divine Signs), Al-Imta’Wal-Mouanasa (Enjoyment and Affability) and Mukabasat (Excerpts), Abu Hayan At-Tawhidi, when talking about the image in all its divine, natural and human forms, did not base his opinions on the prohibition nor on the opinions of Imams and religious scholars. Rather, he built his position on the doctrine of uniqueness and the divine injunctions it stipulates. These ordinances are succinctly put in the following fundamental verse: “there is nothing whatever like unto Him.”

B/2- Abu Hayan based his opinion of the divine image on the principle of uniqueness which distinguishes Islam from other religions. He describes the Creator as follows: “He is the essence, the cause and the fate of everything”.

It is impossible, therefore, to portray Allah in body images or to assimilate Him to any image whatsoever. For He is absolute and the absolute cannot become relative. This is the pitfall of Western painting which depicted Allah on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel as an old man who creates the universe and human beings. This image of the old man was not different from the image of the Greek God Zeus, god of the pagan gods.

At-Tawhidi said “all the 99 attributes of Allah are not sufficient to give Allah His due and all the indicative depictions are unable to portray Allah because man remains unable to understand the attributes of Allah. But he is able thanks to his reason and intuition to believe in Allah’s creative power through the universe and its hidden aspects.”

Allah is as stated in the Holy Qur’an “He is the First and the Last, the Evident and the Immanent” [Iron:3]. In this respect, At-Tawhidi said “Since Allah, Most High, is hidden from eyes, His signs appeared on the pages, parts and margins of the world.”

B/3- Abu Hayan agrees with some of the Hadith exponents on that prohibition concerns only the depiction of the Allah. On the basis of the meaning of uniqueness and belief in it, he said “the depiction of Allah is carried out far from place and quality, close” to age and  time. He who points out to the self only by means of his innocent and sound mind without allusion to a name nor adornment with a painting and in a faithful and sacred manner, gave uniqueness its due within his human abilities. For he affirmed (the time) and negated (the place) and manner (form) and raised it above any thinking and pondering (formal logic)”.

Thus, when he justifies the divine image, Abu Hayan lays down some  conditions which abide by the meaning of the Uniqueness of Allah—the ineluctable characteristic that make Allah transcend human features. At-Tawhidi said: “Since He is far above these attributes in practical terms, He is forcibly described metaphorically, for it is obligatory that we mention, describe, ask, worship, beg, fear and understand Him”.

But how do we portray the divine image? At-Tawhidi said: “It is far beyond human conception, unless this conception is guided by Allah’s assistance. It is only approximately described and determined. But we can say that it is unique, eternal and everlasting”,

B/4- It is the first time after a 1000 years that we discover with At-Tawhidi the reasons behind the rise of geometrical and vegetal arabesque from the perspective of Uniqueness and not from that of prohibition adopted by orientalists. The latter claim that arabesque was an ornament exercised by painters as a substitute for the prohibited painting, without distinguishing between the divine image and the represented one, the forms and objectives of which were  taken up by Abu Hayan, who provided full justifications for it far from the logic of prohibition. Unlike nowadays, the question of prohibition was not then a fundamental issue of Islamic aesthetics. This stand adopted by At-Tawhidi put an end to the controversy about the prohibition issue which is not an issue of principle but only the forbiddance of depicting Allah or emulating Him in representation and creation.

Thus, Arabesque is a religious and Islamic pictorial art based on the principle of Uniqueness, whereas representation is a profane depiction based on cultural functions not forbidden by Islamic law. Representation is permitted when it aims at reminding the senses of things they had already experienced or at portraying things or beings which do not exist physically in reality or in the mind or at depicting pure rational matters so that they become clear and customary.

C/ Search for Righteousness and Creativity in Art

C/1- Islamic art was established on an ideal basis exemplified by the lofty religious architecture and represented by the Minaret staring at heaven and the dome which reflects Divine Bless. The goal of the Muslim artist is to get nearer to the absolute. This implies righteousness and worship, and explains the vegetal and geometrical arabesque, where plants convey heaven, exemplified by palm trees, fig, pomegranate, grass, spikes and roses “And the shades of the (garden) will come low over them, and the Bunches (of fruit). There will hang low in humility” [Insan: 14].

The artist can portray faces but deletes details. This is known as a distraction that highlights man’s inability to create Man from a despised fluid and breathing a spirit into him. The aim of the artist is not creation but creativity through belonging to Allah and not through portraying and emulating Him (“Those  mostly punished on the Day of Judgement are those painters who emulate Allah’s creations”) [Hadith].

C/2- The Muslim painter distances himself from emulation and distorts the picture as far as possible until he reaches the hazy shape, i.e. the first stage of creation as is stated in the Holy verse :“such is He, the Knower of all things, hidden and open, the Exalted (in power), the Merciful. He who has made everything which He has created Most Good: He began the creation of man with (nothing more than) clay. And made his progeny from a quintessence of the nature of a fluid despised. But He fashioned him in due proportion, and breathed into him something of a spirit” [Sajda: 5-6-7-8].

This stake of sedimentation reached a high level of symbolisation which manifested itself in the arabesque. The latter was mistakenly understood from the perspective of the Western conception of art as mere adornment. Some Muslims explained it to be a result of prohibiting representation in reference to the Hadith “painters are tortured in doomsday; they are asked to bring life to what they painted”. This prompted Papadopoulo to say: “Painting in Islam is a prohibited matter or a sin”.

C/3- In reality, painting is prohibited only when the painter slides into unbelief while trying to assimilate pictures and emulate the Creator’s ability to create (“Allah is the only creating image-maker”), or when he likens in his picture the image of Allah. This is unbelief because there is nothing like Him. “There is nothing whatever like unto Him. And He is the One that Hears and Sees (all things)” [Shura: 11].

C/4- Representational painting was known in all Islamic ages. From the Umayyad era, we find artefacts of Caliphs in their rural palaces such as Qusayr Amra Palace which thrives with pictures of kings, bond women, and craftsmen as well as those of animals and birds. Al Hayr El Gharbi Palace contains a sculpture which is perhaps that of the Caliph Hisham. There are also other sketches like the one showing a woman in the form of a Gea, which represents earth. A second drawing reflects a fugitive knight. All the drawings of this palace have been transferred to the National Museum in Damascus.

Al Mafjar Palace teemed with wonderful drawings and sculptures which were transferred to Al Quds Museum. Many wall drawings from the Abbassid era were found in the Palace of Al Mutawakil in Samarra'a. Islamic museums contain remnants of drawings going back to the Fatimid and Mamluk eras. Under the Ottoman era, the traveller Eveliya Celebi (1668) talked about painters in Istanbul who excelled in representational drawing. Ottoman ornaments still bear witness to the dissemination of this art among the Sunni community as well as among the Shiites in Persia

C/5- Poets and scholars have in general produced representational artworks. This clearly indicates the prevalence of this art in the Islamic world. In Abu Tayeb Al-Mutanabi’s poem where he describes Saïf Ad-Daoula’s victory in the Byzantine Barzawih Castle, there is such a vivid depiction that the poem looks like a wonderful drawing ornamented by the image of a tent pitched to welcome Saïf Ad-Daoula in 946. The tent was undoubtedly made by Muslims because a similar tent had been made in Egypt for the Vizier of the Caliph Al Mustazher Bil-lah (1033-1094).

Al Maqrizi states (on page 419) that 150 workers contributed to this work over a period of nine years at a cost estimated at 30 thousands golden coins spent by the Yazuri Vizier who was completely entranced by art. Al Maqrizi relates the huge interest displayed by the Vizier in art and drawings. He mentions in particular Ibn Aziz and Al Qassir who both vied to produce the best representational images. Al Maqrizi says “I had previously tackled in detail the topic of those artists in one of my books." In a chapter of this book entitled “The light of the Lamp and those Enjoying its Company”, Al Maqrizi wrote a list of famous contemporary  painters and artists and illustrated the meanings of the portraits belonging to the Fatimi Caliph Al Mustansir or found in the houses of ministers and princes. Unfortunately, this book had been lost.

Al Maqrizi reported that Al Yazuri, the Grand Vizier of the Fatimi Caliph Al Mustazher, wanted to challenge Al Qassir and Ibn Aziz (who was sent for from Iraq) to compete with each other, especially that the former was notorious for demanding high wages in Egypt. Al Maqrizi reported that Al Qassir “deserved this high esteem. He is in drawing what Ibnu Moqla is in calligraphy; whereas Ibn Aziz matches the calligrapher Ibn Al Bawab”.

When Al Qassir and Ibn Aziz entered into the palace of Al Yazuri, Ibnu Aziz said “I will draw such a picture that any one who sees it will think that it is coming out from the heart of the wall”. Al Qassir countered by saying “I shall draw such a one that he who sees it will think that it merges and mingles with the wall”. Hearing them, Al Yazuri ordered them to honour their commitment. Then each one of them drew up a design of a picture showing a dancing girl. One of the pictures seemed as if it made its way into the wall, while the other seemed as if it made its way out of the wall”.

C/6- This means that the Muslim artist has been able to draw real and precise pictures. But he generally keeps away from abiding by the rules of mathematical perspectives because they are not in tune with his tradition and because perspective in religion and art is spiritual. The painter’s view of his subject is based on the fact that the subject exists thanks to Allah’s power. Thus, the optic rays are not relatively conic but absolute, parallel, and emanate from the universe at large.

It is for these reasons that paintings seem to be flat without a third dimension nor a depth. This principle is derived from the Holy Qur’an : “There is not a thing but celebrates His Praise: and yet Ye understand not How they declare His glory! Verily He is Oft-forbearing, Most forgiving!” [Al Israa: 44]. In another Surat Allah Says: “To Allah belong the East and the West: Whithersoever ye turn, there is the Presence of Allah” [Baqara: 115].

C/7- Islamic architecture contains religious and civilisational features reflected in the building of Islamic cities where the view is determined by spiritual and religious characteristics. Firstly, the Islamic  city is marked by the dominance of the mosque founded at the centre of the city and surrounded by buildings. The mosque is the centre which emits sublime meanings, values and culture, typified by the Qur’an and Hadith schools, religious orders, hospitals, libraries and shops. On the outskirts of the city stand invincible walls. The city also contains a castle for the protection of government as well as horse, saddle and fodder markets.

The Islamic city becomes complete when districts are formed. These districts include within them alleys and quarters which represent the cities’ vines. People interact in the city sheltered from such unforeseen natural elements as sun, rain or storms. They feel very relaxed when they cross these twisted narrow or wide streets. Behind any turning point they are surprised by views of houses and inhabitants gatherings; thus they reach their homes, markets or work without any burden and without any means of transportation.

These streets determine the boundaries of districts where tribes, families or those with common professions are headquartered. This way, the Islamic city is made up of ethnic groups which establish among themselves a social solidarity based on strong bonds, in addition to the religious bonds formed thanks to their continuous meetings in prayers, Friday prayers, religious holidays or during the month of Ramadan.

C/8- In the wide land of Islam, civilisational unity is the major reality enriched by the monotheistic Islamic religion. This reality is conveyed by the orientation of city buildings towards the Qiblah or towards the south depending on the geographical position of the country in question. It is also manifest in the height of houses which does not rise above that of the mosque with its minarets and domes. Houses are made up of two floors and no house rises above the other so that neighbours do not violate the privacy of each other. The façades adopt a humble look: “Nor walk in insolence through the earth”, as opposed to the inner parts of houses: “And the shades of the (Garden) will come low over them, and the bunches (of fruit) there, will hang low in humility” (Insan: 14]. Gardens, which are the lungs of the city, are built in courtyards inside houses. They reflect the inhabitants’ dream of the paradise promised for the virtuous. Indeed, the inner courtyard with its fruit trees, sweet basils, mosaic and fountains is a unique feature of Islamic architecture.

The human dimension on the basis of which cities and houses were built, took into consideration environment (climate and pollution), living conditions (rest and security), and religious matters (culture and ethics); the city was a sort of vessel of human values and civilisational features which define the traits of urban Islamic architecture.

D/ Islamic Guidelines in architectural principles

D/1- A Muslim architect draws the principles for the construction of his buildings from Islamic law. Islamic architecture must contain human dimensions because Allah honoured mankind. Allah says: “We Have Honoured the sons of Adam” [Al Israa: 70]. In another verse Allah says: “We have indeed created man in the best of moulds” [Tin: 3]. Thus man is the first creation Allah created in the best of moulds and is considered as a standard of perfection in works carried out by mankind.

Although Islamic law did not lay down a system or style for the construction of mosques and houses, it underlined such deeds as work, knowledge and creativity so that man’s yield would be righteous. Allah says “Work (righteousness) soon will Allah observe your work, and His Apostle, and the believers” [Tawba : 105]. Thus we see that responsible and useful work is based on knowledge “O my Lord! Advance me in knowledge” [Taha : 114].

Allah honoured scholars and raised their position in the Islamic community. Allah says in Mujadila Surat: “Allah will raise up, to guidable ranks (and degrees) those of you who believe and who have been granted (mystic) knowledge” [Mujadila:11].

In the field of construction, Allah emphasised the need for choosing the right piece of land. The Almighty says: “It is Allah Who has made for you the earth as a resting place, and the Sky as a canopy” [Ghafir:64]. The architect complied with Allah’s injunctions to achieve the strength and stability of his buildings. Allah says “Which then is best? –he that layeth his foundations on piety to Allah and His good pleasure? – or he that layeth his foundation on an undermined sand-cliff ready to crumble to pieces? [Tawba: 109]. Laying the foundation amounts to piety and pleasure in Allah.

Concerning the conditions of strong construction, a poet says:

A house is built but with a foundation

No foundation exists if no pegs are laid down.

No building is built without a foundation except heaven which Allah raised without pillars. Allah says in the Ra’d Surat: “Allah is who raised the heavens without any pillars that ye can see” [Ra’d:2]. The reason behind laying foundations is to provide security. Allah says: “Out of the mountains did they hew (their) edifices, (feeling themselves) secure” [Al Hijr: 82]. The Qur’an set an example of ancient Damascus whose pillars were firmly laid down. Allah says: “of the (city of ) Iram, with lofty pillars. The like of which were not produced in all the land?” [Fajr:6]. Many a times the Qur’an and the Hadith emphasise humbleness and simplicity as conveyed in the following verse: “nor walk in insolence through the earth; for Allah loveth not any arrogant boaster” [Luqman: 18]. It was incumbent upon the architect not to pave the ground for boasting in his architecture, lest others’ feelings should be stirred. Thus the outer side of edifices was not given much importance while the inner part was much decorated.

The principle of a justly balanced Ummah mentioned in the Qur’an and which is a characteristic of the Islamic Ummah has urged the architect to strike a just balance in his architecture, allow for the fulfilling of the functions of habitation and set an example in architecture for people to follow. "Thus have we madeth of you an Ummah justly balanced that ye might be witnesses over the nations. And the apostle a witness over yourselves” [Al Baqara: 143]. The Qur’an also warned against excess and exaggeration: “For the scum disappears like froth cast out; while that which is for the good of mankind remains on earth” [Ra’d: 19].

Architecture is an art and a science. Just as the Qur’an emphasises setting up architecture on science so that it would be firm and strong, it emphasised art. Allah says: “say: who hadeth forbidden the beautiful (gifts) of Allah, which He Had produced for His servants, and the things, clean and pure (which he hath provided) for sustenance” [al A‘raf: 32]. Allah also says: “Nor forget there portion in this world” [Qasas:77], and “that which is on earth we have made but as a glittering show for the earth” [Kahf:7].

Architectural beauty comprises the study of aesthetic balance: “And produceth therein all kinds of things in due balance” [Al Hijr:18]. It also comprises taking care of water and vegetation inside houses so that delight would prevail in them. Allah says in the Naml Surat: “And who sends you down rain from the sky? Yea, with it we cause to draw well planted orchards full of beauty and delight” [Naml:60]. The Qur’an also ordered that light, warmth and shade conditions be observed. Allah says: “Allah gave you the sun and the moon”. He also says “and wee gave you the shade of clouds” [Baqara: 57], and “It is Allah who made out of things he created some things to give you shade” [Nahl: 81].

D/2- Hand-written ornaments are a remarkable marvel. Allah honoured the pen and writing: “Nun. By the pen and by the (record) which (men) write” [Qalam: 1]. The beautiful calligraphy is a sign of respect for and greatness of Qur’anic inscriptions found almost in every mosque or house.

D/3- The Islamic Shari’a has laid down rules for the protection of the rights of house owners and neighbours, first among which is the elaboration of regulations that vary according to cases; Allah says therefore: "Every soul draws the mead of its acts on one but itself” [An’am: 164]. Indeed, most of the comprehensive rules the Code comprised were made to safeguard the rights of architects, inhabitants and neighbours. “Hurt neither oneself nor the others”, “hurt persists”, “no deed is ascribed to him who had done nothing” and “right is eternal” are but a few illustrations of these rules.

Hence Islamic architecture reflects the civilisational characteristics provided for in the Holy Qur’an and the lofty values recommended by the true religion.

E/ Search for Islamic Aesthetics

E/1- Islamic thought laid the foundation for such Islamic arts as architecture, painting and arabesque. It was necessary to establish an Islamic artistic thought or what is called Islamic aesthetics. Distinguished Muslim scholars laid the foundations of this discipline. The writings of such scholars as Al Farabi, Al Asfahani, Al Jahid and At-Tawhidi is a rich material that could constitute an introduction to Islamic aesthetics with deep roots in Islamic thought. We have chosen Abu Hayan At-Tawhidi because he is one of the great critics of Arab literature (19). Criticism requires rules and principles which define the artistic view. Abu Hayan defined the meaning of creativity and laid down standards on the basis of this meaning. Getting familiar with his writings, we come to know a sound example of creative perfection. If we adopt his standards in reading his literature or that of his contemporaries, it becomes clear that the mechanism of creativity does not differ from that of appreciation. We also realise that work cannot come through except if it belongs to the theoretical foundations of artistic creativity in conformity with the concept of art specific to the kind of civilisation in question.

E/2- Islamic civilisation developed throughout history with cohesive and strong links binding all its aspects. The unity of this civilisation was not only formal and visible but also fundamental and had its deep roots in religion, Ideal and history. It is regretted that these roots have not been sufficiently studied. Research conducted on heritage has been academistic. It is essential therefore to study it with the spirit of modern times so that it becomes a circulating and accessible culture that can be dealt with in the present and the future. The study of roots means the study of cultural identity. This should not be looked at as racism or chauvinism, unless our national concept is of a tribal, not a civilisational, nature. Nationalism is a civilisational bond and national belonging is a civilisational belonging.

We have attempted to disclose the milestones of artistic thought through an Arab scholar who dealt indirectly with the philosophy of art in the manner of scholars who approached aesthetics by way of metaphysics. We propose to cite some paragraphs from his writings concerning the philosophy of art. These are literary texts which have got an artistic value in themselves. They were studied before as mere wonderful texts containing views, thoughts and stories. But those who conducted research on Abu Hayan did not pay attention to the question of aesthetics. Yet Abu Hayan was the only one neglected;  other Arab and Muslim scholars who took up the issue of the philosophy of art were equally ignored. Abu Hayan developed opinions on creativity, appreciation, genius and artistic techniques.

Abu Hayan’s ideas are an example of aesthetic thought as is embedded in Arabo-Islamic heritage; his philosophy is comprehensive and comprises all types of Islamic art such as poetry, music and calligraphy. We shall see that what many aspects of Western aesthetics were dealt with by At-Tawhidi and other scholars, albeit in a different style. At-Tawhidi’s philosophy of art is the philosophy that is mostly comparable to Western aesthetics in all its aspects ⁽²²⁾.