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Chapter I
The Characteristics of Islamic Architecture
A/ The
Beginnings of Architecture
A/1- Art was created with the early
creation of man. The Lascaux and Altamira caves still bear
witness to the magnificent art displayed by the primitive
man in adorning his cave, his home and settling place. These
adornments, consisting of coloured representations of
extinct animals, are evidence of a skilfulness and a realism
that confirm the precedence of art as a means of
communication over language and literature in the life of
humans.
A/2- With the advance of civilisation,
the dwelling place became the receptacle of all artists
skills and talents. The houses discovered in Wadi Annatuf
(Palestine) and in Mouraybet (Syria), and which date back to
the seventh millennium B.C., were adorned with coloured
decorations.
A/3- Construction itself, with its
external appearance, its mass, and its components, was soon
to become a "tangible artistic " entity requiring creativity
and a technical spirit. It, however, remained the vessel for
all plastic arts, including painting and sculpture. This was
most evident in Islamic architecture as we have seen in
Umayad Palaces that are adorned with coloured and monochrome
sculptures, and with coloured sketches and mosaic work whose
vestiges are still erect in the palaces of Al Hyr and Al
Mshatta, and in the palaces of Al Mafjar, and Hammam Qusayr
Amra.
A/4- Although picturesque art separated
from architecture to become associated with such mobile
items as manuscripts, utensils, and furniture, its style did
not alter very much. It remained either imitative and
realistic or ornamental and abstract, but it developed along
with methods and with the efforts to innovate exerted up to
date. Architecture, on the other hand, adopted instead of
calligraphy and colour the language of mass and space, thus
forging for itself an independent identity that remained
distinct from the other arts of building that were
contemporaneous with Islamic architecture.
A/5- Plastic arts, including , painting
and sculpture, could easily be incorporated with and
inspired by other artistic currents and genres. This is
what happened to the art of miniature when it deviated
toward European art. Architecture, however, cannot afford to
deviate, no matter how slightly, lest its authenticity be
lost or its characteristics obliterated under the hegemony
of European architectural styles. These might indeed be
easier to implement, more practical, and closer to the very
concept of modernity and fashion, but they still remain
alien to the authentic civilisational origin of the Islamic
architectural paradigm. During periods of Arab political
and social subordination, the melting away of Arab
civilisational personality could be seen with most evidence
in the vanishing of the authentic architectural character.
The formation of an architectural style is a creative work
that requires an independent society and environment. The
subordination undergone by the Arab peoples succeeded in
repressing artistic creativity and in keeping the door wide
open for Western influence. This is how the colonial style
appeared in the buildings of Cairo, Alexandria, Algiers,
Rabat, Casablanca, Aleppo, and Beirut.
A/6- When the new architecture under the
name of Jugenstil first appeared in Germany, and when the
world saw Germany’s glass and iron pavilion-built by Mies
Van der Rohe at Barcelona’s 1929 Architectural Exhibition,
it was the end of classical architecture and the beginning
of the era of extremist and abstract creativity that was to
be later consecrated by the Bauhaus School in Weimar. It
was the beginning of modernity in architecture, based on the
rejection of all architectural traditions and the return to
abstract forms and shapes. Hence the conversion of
architecture to cubes and pyramids, either isolated or
assembled in lots not totally free from some futility and
derision. Architecture’s sole concern became to shock the
beholder with its asymmetric volumes, masses, and spaces,
and with a lushness in the use of internal spaces for
special purposes, all dictated by the requirements of
electric and electronic appliances that ensure motion,
ascension, heating, ventilation, and safety.
The question we might ask today is: how
do modern constructions compare with those of past days?
Jencks, who proclaims a post-modernist architecture, says in
this respect: " Of the art of building, only symbols have
remained. This art has gone to the farthest point that
separates it from history and from man ".
The architecture of the past in India,
Mexico, Italy and the Arab world, and in many other parts of
the world, is still standing erect, painfully watching the
collapse of its original concept on behalf of the
abstraction and futility of modern architecture. But
authenticity partisans in all architecture schools have
gradually started combating the modern style by voicing
their discontent and their disappointment with the outcome
of modernity. For them, modernity has reached point zero
(1).
B/ Construction and Architecture
B/1- Before any endeavour to study
Islamic architecture, there should first be some agreement
on the preliminary concepts of that art. There might be
some confusion between the concept of construction and that
of architecture, although there exists a distinct academic
specialisation for each: a technical-architectural
specialisation, and an artistic-architectural one.
Construction would thus be a building method performed to
fulfil a specific social function like housing, worship,
study, medication, and commemoration. As such, this method
requires knowledge of the characteristics of these functions
and of their relation to the environment. It also requires
knowledge of the building materials most fit to fulfil the
desired function in all safety, as well as knowledge of
overall town planning in such a way as to have the
construction achieved fit in the general tissue of the
city. As for architecture, or the art of building, it is an
inventive and ornamental creation that serves to highlight
the identity of the constructed entity and its function.
Architecture has a double-fold vocation: an external one,
linked to the overall outlook of the city and devoted to
making the construction achieved integrate well into the
rest of the constructed landscape. The architectural style
is then what defines the general outlook of constructions.
As such, it can either be authentic or alien, traditional or
original. Architectural designers always endeavour to set up
an architectural system to underlie the founding of any
city, a system that would help organise social life and
create united social relations reflecting the unity of the
architectural style or model.
B/2-The internal vocation or aspect of
architecture, on the other hand, is linked to special
individual or family interests. Its mission is to fulfil
direct objectives of the inhabitants who aspire to a private
peaceful and pleasant world. Islamic architecture has been
quite unique in favouring the internal aspect of buildings
over the external one. This is how the interior of
buildings became adorned with the most magnificent
decorations on walls, lintels, friezes, columns, windows and
doors. Inside the buildings, there were ponds, fountains,
and gardens full of the fragrance of flowers and jasmine,
and heavy with lemon trees and grape-vines, so much so that
the house was said to be its owner’s Paradise. A Hadith of
the Prophet even says that " a man’s Paradise is his own
house ".
B/3- The architect’s main concern was to
design the shape and components of the building, namely
columns, arches, cupolas, and vaults. The art of building
developed with the evolution of social life and with the
development of new urban systems. The appearance of
concrete, metal, and glass had had the greatest impact on
the evolution of modern architecture that filtered into our
own architecture. It became, then, necessary to use them in
conformity with the characteristics of the traditional
architectural spirit in order to preserve the authentic
architectural identity of Islamic buildings.
C/ The Terminology of Islamic
Architecture
C/1- Islamic architectural culture
started with the simple mason who undertook to create and
invent in a very spontaneous way, relying on his intuition,
skill, and on his social and religious belonging. That
mason never studied any theoretical references. Rather, his
endeavours and experiments set the path for a tradition that
was to be followed by later generations of architects. Out
of these architectural practices a special language and
vocabulary emerged and was used by masons to describe their
work . The vocabulary was as dense and diverse as the
masters profiles, their environments, and their personal
dialects. This is why different and non-unified terms
appeared, although they were all very pertinent and highly
expressive.
C/2- With the diffusion of culture and
the shifting from different dialects to Arabic, the common
language of the Qur’an, it became necessary to unify the
vocabulary. Language academies started working to that
effect, and it became possible for architecture institutes
to adopt the terminology agreed upon. These efforts made it
easier to apprehend the secrets of architecture and unify
architects’ reading of it, with the ultimate objective of
reinforcing the unity of the Islamic architectural
character.
D/ The Characteristics of Islamic
Architecture
D/1- Despite the difference between the
concept of construction and that of architecture, Islamic
architecture enjoys general characteristics relying both on
the technical-scientific and on the artistic-creative
principles of architecture. The theory of architecture was
exhaustively studied in Egypt, Iraq, India, and in the West.
The richly documented treatises on the subject, which served
as a reference for experts throughout the world and which
were transmitted to us through translation, were, however,
very poor on the theoretical level and could not provide a
theoretical background to help determine the characteristics
of Islamic architecture. It was, therefore, necessary to
make up for that lack with a certain number of
facts.
D/2- It must be clearly understood that
the definition of the characteristics was not done prior to
the birth of architecture itself. This conclusion was
inferred from what architecture itself revealed. There is a
particular characteristic which underlied the features and
identity of this art: religion. The Religious manifested
itself in the Islamic aesthetic spirit that was at the basis
of Islamic arts and architecture
D/3- The relationship between
architecture and the Islamic creed found its expression in
the monotheist spirit as a religious foundation, and in the
very Islamic precepts, principles, and traditions.
Monotheist thinking is based on the
belief in the oneness, uniqueness, and absolute nature of
God (Surat al Ikhlass), and in His sovereignty over Earth
and Heaven. As such, the concept of God in Islam is
distinguished from the same concept in other religions where
God is either personified, defined, likened, or relativised.
The absolute nature of God has been behind the relentless
quest for the dimensions of that Absolute. Faith has been a
cultural pursuit that could be best expressed in the search
for the secrets of the Absolute and for His tremendous
powers as they are manifested in beings and in nature.
D/4- The mosque was the first building to
have been founded on the basis of piety. It united the
faithful under the same dome in awe before the Majesty of
the Absolute, aspiring all, secretly and publicly, to get
closer to Him. The mosque was built to fulfil the
requirements of prayer. Later on, the requirements of other
faith-related practices shifted to other constructions like
the school, the mausoleum, the palace, and the house
D/5- For Azzarkachi(2), who
elaborated on the conditions underlying the construction of
the mosque, the main objective of the edifice is to
facilitate the worshipper’s carrying out of his prayer and
to allow him to hear the preacher with clarity. The mosque
should also fulfil the following conditions:
1- Allow contact between worshippers and
the forming of orderly, aligned rows.
2- The absence of columns from the
courtyard, in order not to cut the rows.
3- The absence of any obstacles to the
orderly alignment of rows.
4- The presence of an exit in the wall to
separate the courtyard from the sanctuary.
5- Access to the courtyard should not be
direct.
D/6- In his Hadai’q Attamam
fi-l-Kalam‘Ani-l-Hammam, a treatise on the architecture of
public baths, Al Kawkabani talks about the necessity for
these buildings to fulfil the adequate conditions of
hygiene, privacy, and health. Baths should have a
therapeutic vocation, ensure the provision of services
through an administrative platform, provide a changing room,
a store room, and a safe to bath users. Al Kawkabani also
recommends the improvement of the technical principles of
the baths’ architecture with the increase of water-drains
and light-shafts in rooms. The bath should also be divided
into three parts of different temperatures: a cool part, a
warm part, and a dry one to protect users from the effects
of the sudden changes in temperature.
D/7- The criteria for the construction of
hospitals were set by Religious Endowments (Waqf)
Conditions and market orders.
D/8- In addition to the general
conditions set for the construction of buildings, there were
other conditions that had to be fulfilled prior to the
process of construction itself. ‘Umar Ibn Al Khattab, the
second Muslim caliph, was the first to establish a set of
prerequisites to construction. These are, as Ibn Arrami
lists them in his book (3): the determination of
the use to be made of the land or serviceableness, and the
right to use the road. Geography books and travelogues,
mainly AL Azraki’s History of Mecca, Ibn Assakir’s History
of Damascus, and AL Khatib Al Baghdadi’s History of Baghdad,
talk about conditions pertaining to town planning in
general. In his Mawa’iz Al I’tibar, for instance, Al Maqrizi
gives an exhaustive description of Cairo’s general planning,
with its mosques, gardens, saints’ shrines, hospitals,
baths, and lanes. Al Maqrizi’s treatise is considered the
most important reference for town planning in general and
for the description of Cairo more specifically(4).
E/ The Human Scale
E/1- Ibn Qutayba had compared the house
to a shirt, saying that just as the shirt should fit its
owner, the house too should suit its dweller. Ibn Qutayba
was thus the first person to have talked about the human
scale in Islamic architecture (5).
E/2- The human scale was highlighted by
contrast to the mathematical scale that has been at the
basis of Western architecture since the Greek and Roman eras
and up to the modern times. The mathematical scale is based
on the complete compliance with Order. Order forms out of
the interaction of geometric and mathematical elements, and
develops through specific tools like rulers and compasses.
Islamic architecture is, on the contrary, based on the
organic relationship between people’s needs and their social
and climatic environments, and their beliefs and ideals. The
architect’s tools are his arms, hands, fingers, and a chord
to measure the distance and diameter of the arches, cupolas,
and vaults he erects, and to check whether surfaces are
vertical. His guide in designing, building, and decorating
is not reason alone, but intuition too. Construction is
intimately linked to the inhabitants’ family concerns and
social needs. It has to satisfy their mental disposition and
suit their aptness to interact with their environment. The
Qur’an itself is very clear in stressing the centrality of
Man in life in general and in his own environment more
specifically (Surat Annahl-12).
E/3- The human scale in Islamic
architecture was consistent with the environment of
inhabitants, their traditions, and the spirit of Islamic
civilisation. This is why transposing this scale to an alien
environment would be very difficult, just as it would be
difficult to adopt the mathematical scale to analyse and
study Islamic architecture. The dwelling place has been
created to be its owner’s home within his historical
background, his beliefs, culture, and civilisation.
E/4- Saying that Islamic architecture was
based on the human scale does not mean that it obeyed no
scientific logic or mathematical reasoning. Muslims had a
great share in the elaboration of architecture’s basic
mathematical rules. Al Khawarizmi was the first to invent
figures and rank them by degree. He also invented the zero
and laid the foundation of Algorithms, the mathematical
branch that was named after him. And he is the author of a
book on Algebra and Equivalence where the basic algebraic
equations are expounded. Still in mathematics, the Egyptian
Abou Kamil Chujaa’ Ibn Aslam (d.240 AH /951 AD) had
succeeded in solving equations with five unknowns. Another
mathematician, Thabit Ibn Qurrah, had devoted his research
to cubic and square volumes, while the sons of Mussa Ibn
Shakir had solved the problem of the division of angles into
three in a book about the surface of geometric forms. The
said book was translated into Latin as How the West Learnt
from Ibn Shakir.
Ibn Al Haytham, on his part, was known
for his dedication to complex geometric problems, among
which : "if a straight line cuts through two straight lines
and the total of both angles on the same side is less than
two right angles, then the two straight lines, if they
stretch ad infinitum, will meet on the opposite direction of
the two angles that are less than the two right angles".
E/5- The objective of the human scale
underlying Islamic architecture was the protection of man
from nature’s hazards, and from atmospheric noise and
pollution. The Muslim architect had, indeed, succeeded in
moulding architecture to make it meet that objective.
The most important element in the Islamic
house is the inner yard, and in the mosque the courtyard.
The yard is that part of the building that opens directly
onto the sky, while the doors and windows of the two storeys
give onto it. The yard is protected from any external air
currents because separated from the front door by a curved
corridor that also serves to check the infiltration of wind,
smoke, or dust to the inside. Experience proved that the
upper air currents remain hovering over the yard and only
traverse it if the corridor and front door are both open.
This means that the upper air currents, whether they be hot
or cool, clean or polluted, exert no influence on the
temperature or purity of the yard’s atmosphere.
E/6- The ground floor in rooms and in
sanctuaries has to be higher than the yard’s or the
courtyard’s levels. The rationale behind this rule is that,
cold air being heavier than warm air, it is bound to remain
at the bottom of the yard, and is prevented from getting
into the rooms or the sanctuary by the high doorsteps. This
system can be seen with more clarity in rooms whose ground
floor is raised to the height of one tribune (Tasar) or two
above the building’s ground level. This extra height
prevents cold air from reaching the floor of the tribune.
E/7- The mason has always worked stones,
bricks, and wood in dimensions that guaranteed the
protection of inhabitants from the external cold and heat.
E/8- In all kinds of buildings, water was
a central element for cleaning, refreshing, and enjoyment as
it used to gush forth from springs and fountains into pools
and ponds of different kinds and forms. The buildings were
conceived to best attract the warmth of the sun and
sunlight, and to avert the smoke of kitchens and the
unpleasant smells from toilets.
E/9- Islamic architecture is
characterised by a major feature that sets the interior
aspect of buildings far above the exterior one. Any
building, be it a mosque, a school, or a house, is conceived
in that spirit; meaning that its external architecture is
far less significant than its internal one. This can be seen
in the early mosques like the Umayad Mosque in Damascus, the
Mosque of ‘Uqba in Al Qayrawan, and the Mosque of Cordoba.
The same phenomenon can generally be observed in houses and
palaces. In houses, this characteristic responds to the
inhabitant’s search for privacy. This is why the interior is
enriched with the most magnificent decorations and
furniture, while the façade is neglected, mainly out of
modesty. This " internalisation " falls under the concept of
the Human Scale.
E/10- The spread of cars as a major
transportation means changed the architectural structure of
the Islamic city and altered the overall aspect of
buildings. The city turned into a set of constructions
aligned along the roads, the city’s artery that feed its
social and economic dealings.
Modern urban paradigm is based on the
partitioning of buildings into separate parcels that
overlook the roads or the surrounding gardens directly. This
is how the interior lost its primacy on behalf of the
exterior in the Islamic architectural system. The
architect’s concern shifted to the façades and external
gardens at the expense of the buildings’ inner architecture.
Those sections of the house that used to open onto the clean
and cool air of the yard became directly exposed to the
polluted atmosphere of the outside protect the building from
smoke, smell and noise and to the inquisitiveness of the
neighbours. This announced the end of the sacredness of
home.
On the whole, the new organisation which
cars imposed reflected the organisation of the modern city
itself. While architecture was the basis for the planning of
cities, the layout of the modern city became what determines
the form and nature of buildings. It also reflected the new
social order. The role of family traditions in moulding the
architecture of buildings receded before that of cars, which
have become the determining factor in city planning and in
the definition of social traditions.
F/ Islamic urban and architectural
precepts
F/1- Islamic precepts, principles, and
traditions have shaped and reinforced the personality and
identity of architecture. All these principles and
traditions, if compiled in a comprehensive study, would
provide us with the complete theoretical background of
Islamic architecture. The first precepts were ordained by
‘Umar Ibn Al Khattab who had ordered the Wali of Kufa and
Basra to observe strict dimensions in the laying of streets
and lanes, and in the determination of the contiguity and
height of houses. He had also instructed that houses should
be turned toward the mosque and the Seat of the Emirate.
Philosophers and thinkers like Avicenna, Ibn Khaldun, and
Ibn Qutayba had similarly developed important architectural
principles. Religious scholars themselves had a role in
enriching Islamic architecture theory, like Ibn Arrami (d.
376 AH) who presents in his Al ‘Ilan Fi Ahkam Al Bunyane
major organisational and hygienic instructions. He also
talks about architectural errors and their consequences,
like the absence of an insulation system to protect the
building from smoke, smell, noise, and heat. Ibn Arrami does
not omit to insist on the supreme importance of the
sacredness of the dwelling place, and recommends its
protection from the indiscretion of neighbours and
passers-by.
F/2- Islamic faith shaped Islamic
architecture both on the artistic and technical planes, and
gave it that uniform personality that has characterised it
all through the ages. However, the diverse traditions,
languages, and cultures of the peoples who converted to
Islam throughout the world, from China in the east to the
Atlantic, in the west, gave variety to the architectural
enterprise, while sticking all to the principle of
functionality. Greeks and Romans, for instance, had a
standard style for all kinds of buildings, while Islamic
architecture always strove to make the shape of the building
fit its function. The architecture of the mosque is
different from that of the school, the cemetery, the
hospital, or the house, and it is very unlikely that the
function of a building be mistaken from its architectural
form. Rather, the value of a building is proportional to its
capacity to fulfil the function set for it. A house is
perfect when it carries out its mission; that of ensuring
protection and peace.
Ibn Qutayba equally expounds the
conditions of the dwelling place, be it a tent or a
construction, and lists some building styles like plaster
coatings, abstract or vaulted houses, or houses with a wall
erected in the middle to support the roof. He also cites
the names of the different parts and rooms of a house and
their function, namely the bedroom, the awning, the roofed
gallery, the courtyard, and the other facilities like the
stable and the toilet. Ibn Qutayba also points out the
importance of building materials in ensuring the safety and
robustness of buildings (5).
F/3- One of the basic principles
underlying Islamic architecture is the connection between
constructions and the overall architectural structure of
dwelling agglomerations. Geographers, travellers, and poets
seldom dissociate architecture from its civilisational
environment. Talking about this connectedness, the poet
Asa’ad Tobba' says :
Our house is a real house unapproachable
by foe
It is the best of houses, with vine, palm
and all kinds of good trees galore
Our monuments are signs of our greatness,
check them after us.
Al Mas’udi(6), on the other
hand, talks about the conditions that should determine the
choice of the sites fit for construction in the countryside.
Al Hamadani (4) determines the conditions for urban
constructions, citing Sana’a as an example, and recommends
the harmonisation of buildings with their urban environment,
in conformity with the requirements of urban architecture.
He recommends most particularly the positioning of buildings
in the direction of the wind, and the growing of vegetables
both to provide inhabitants with fresh supplies of food and
to soften the air. He gives further directives pertaining to
the provisioning in water and the organisation of
irrigation, and to building materials, techniques, measures,
and distances. Al Hamadani also discusses the external
characteristics of buildings.
G/ Natural Ventilation
G/1- In many Islamic cities like Isphahan,
Dubai, and Aleppo, the architectural plan has provided for a
ventilation and cooling system called "Al Malqaf" (Badgir).
This system consists in a tower that cuts through and rises
above the houses, with edged windows opened up in its upper
part and a conic partition in the middle. This tower serves
to catch the outside air that flows through it towards the
building’s rooms. Generally, a water pond is constructed in
the vicinity of the house to refresh air beforehand.(7)
G/2- A simpler ventilation system used to
be laid on terraces’ balustrades, consisting of horizontal
openings that also served to catch air to refresh those who
were still awake or those who were sleeping on the terrace.
G/3- Another ventilation system was
discovered in some ancient buildings. It is made up of
pipes laid horizontally in such a way as to distribute air
to the different rooms of the building. Latticework-plaited
windows are also commonly used for catching the outside air.
G/4- " Al Malqaf " remains the ideal
ventilation and cooling system used in Islamic buildings
that are located in dry and warm environments. It is both
economic and healthy, and we would better readapt it to our
modern architecture, not out of any aesthetic concern, as
this is the case in Jabal ‘Ali in Dubai, but as an economic
and healthy ventilation system.
H/ Architecture and Ornamentation
H/1- Ornamentation is one of the basic
components of Islamic architecture. It is true that the
Mosque of the Prophet, the first Islamic edifice, was
extremely simple and ascetic in the beginning. It was a
mere roofed gallery covered with palm leaves and standing on
palm trunks, with no ornamentation whatsoever. The
reconstruction of the Mosque, which was undertaken on the
order of Al Walid Ibn ‘Abd Al Malik and during the
governance of Umar Ibn ‘Abdela’aziz, was based on new
architectural principles where ornamentation and mosaic work
occupied a central place, as this was the case for the
Mosque of Damascus. The French scholar Sauvaget has
described its ornamentation in a book devoted to this Mosque
(8).
H/2- Islamic architecture relies on
design that conforms to Islamic architectural traditions,
mainly the principle of function, and on the creation of
vegetal and geometric ornamentation and beautiful
calligraphic figures. In fact, ornamentation developed so
much that they dominated design. The different stages of
that development can be clearly seen in the Mosque of
Cordoba which had been built in three phases. The first wing
of the Mosque was erected by ‘Abdul Rahman Addakhil on the
model of Al Aqsa Mosque and the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus.
Then in 848 AD, ‘Abd Arrahmane II added a 26 meters’ deep
wing which changed the outlook of the Mosque and enriched
it. An extra wing was built to the southern part of the
Mosque, in continuation of the first part and along the
Mosque of ‘Abdul Rahman Addakhil. This last part was added
by Al Hakam II, son of Abdul Rahman Annasser in 965 AD. This
historical and architectural succession shows us the gradual
development of ornamentation up to when it dominated Islamic
architecture altogether. The mihrab in the last section
added by Al Hakam is, indeed, one of the most magnificently
ornamented Islamic mihrabs, and the cupolas of that wing are
the glory of Islamic ornamentation. A third addition was
made alongside the mosque to the east by Al Hajib Al Mansur
in 992.
The development of crownings, arcades,
and cupolas are the best example of the contribution of
ornamentation to the development of Islamic architecture.
H/3- The Arabesque, literally Arab
Ornamentation, is one of the most outstanding expressions of
Islamic artistic creativity. However, its preponderance in
architecture, especially in the palaces of Alhambra in
Granada, confined architecture itself to a decorative role.
H/4- The inscriptions that adorn the
ceilings and friezes in Islamic buildings remain a basic
component of architectural creativity. In addition to their
aesthetic quality, the inscriptions are valuable records of
Islamic architecture’s history. The oldest beautiful
inscriptions to have ever adorned an Islamic edifice to date
are those ornamenting the Dome of the Rock from the inside.
They date the construction of the Mosque and consist, in
part, of Qur'anic verses calligraphed in cursive, Kufi
style, and paved with the same mosaic stones ornamenting the
Dome. There seldom exist Islamic buildings devoid of
decorative inscriptions, mostly Qur'anic verses, engraved on
stone or wood, or worked in mosaic and ceramics. Generally,
the last inscriptions to appear in an ornamented space make
mention of the monuments erected by the founder of the site
and his role in making architecture prosper. These
inscriptions also give an account of the progress of Arab
calligraphy from its birth to the stages of the Kufi style
and the sprawling decorative style known as the Tulut. Other
similarly beautiful traditional calligraphic styles, namely
the picturesque and the chess-like, can be found in Persian,
Mamluke, and Ottoman mosques.
I/ Unity and diversity in Islamic
architecture
I/1- Unity is certainly one of the most
outstanding characteristics of Islamic architecture. This
unity reveals itself in religious buildings, in dwellings,
and in all kinds of private and public edifices, whatever
the place or the era. This unity remains a basic component
of the identity of Islamic architecture. It is true that
places of worship in Muslim China, for instance, have
departed from that principle of unity. Throughout the
Islamic world, however, from Indonesia to Morocco, the
characteristic of unity is present despite the great variety
of styles. Also, the religious buildings that were erected
in Europe; in Paris, London, and Munich have preserved their
Islamic identity. On the whole, the Islamic identity is most
patent in those places where Islam was widespread and where
Muslims were a majority.
I/2- The variety of architectural styles
is evidence of the role of creativeness in enriching
architectural design. It also denotes the consistency of
architecture with its overall architectural, social, and
cultural environments. Variety within unity is one of the
distinguishing features of Islamic architecture that was to
pave the way for a modern architecture, deeply rooted in
authenticity, but with a strong disposition to develop,
innovate, and create.
I/3- Islamic art, mainly architecture, is
characterised by the variety of its styles and forms. This
diversity is the result of Islamic authorities’
encouragement of contact with other cultures and styles. The
artist’s and the architect’s freedom to create is, however,
the most important factor underlying the abundance and
variety of styles.
Islam has always called for responsible
acts and responsibility, and has always encouraged
embellishment at all levels. Beauty and perfection go
together in Islam. The basic principles that determine
Islamic values are clearly laid down in the Book (3 Surats,
p 15). God entrusted man with the regency of the world (Al
Ahzab 33). This holy verse reveals the weight of the
responsibility incumbent on man, but also the scope of the
freedom and free-will granted to him. Man’s responsibility
on earth is stronger and greater that heaven, earth, and the
mountains together. This tremendous potential man enjoys had
to be translated into fruitful and creative action in life.
The faithful Muslim who shouldered this responsibility
succeeded in building the most magnificent human
civilisation ever created up to the present day. Encouraged
by the freedom granted to him, prodded by the faith in God,
and oblivious to the difficulty of his mission, man was
unjust towards himself, ignorant of the importance of his
sacrifice.
The mission of constructing a
civilisation had to be expressed through scholarly
endeavour, religious erudition, and artistic creativeness.
The Muslim creator had to draw the principles of his
creation from the precepts of the Qur’an first. These
precepts granted him a great freedom, but within the
confines of responsible action. After the Qur’an, the
creator had to refer himself to the needs of people, which
varied according to their social standing, tastes, and
talents. The keen rivalry between the successive rulers in
different Muslim societies for the promotion of architecture
and the arts, for the public welfare, and the personal
artistic aspirations of individuals as to their security and
well-being provided the creator with boundless opportunities
to create within the framework of one Islamic aesthetic
paradigm. This is how diversity in Islamic artistic creation
has always expressed itself within the founding principle of
unity.
I/4- To have an accurate idea of the
large scope of variety in Islamic art and architecture, we
must draw a comparison with other civilisations’
contributions in art and architecture too. Greek and Roman
classical architecture, for instance, never went beyond the
Ionic, the Corinthian, and the doric styles. Despite this
diversity of names, all these styles follow the same
architectural system consisting of a cephalophorus and an
entablature. The entablature is constituted of a fronton
that rests on a cornice and a frieze, while the
cephalophorus is made up of columns similar in everything
except for the shape of the crowns. Similarly, if we look
into Christian Byzantine Romanesque and Gothic architectural
styles, we realise that neither transcends the concept of
the Roman basilica, were it not for the additional statutes
in Gothic architecture and the painted glass and murals work
in Byzantine architecture.
I/5- Such limitations do not exist in
Islamic architecture. The great variety of ornaments and
calligraphic styles testify to the boundless creative
talents of the Muslim artist. Further evidence of this
richness is given by the imposing monuments in Acra,
Isphahan, Baghdad, Damascus, Cairo, Al Qairawuan, and
Cordoba, which all span fifteen centuries of the history of
Islamic civilisation.
This richness cannot be imputed to the
diversity of rulers or dynasties alone. The artist himself
is the maker of these masterpieces and not the king, nor the
owner of the masterpiece, whatever it is. These might
sponsor creation or encourage it, but this only confirms
that the variety of artistic and architectural styles is the
work of the artist alone, of his personal vision, effort and
skill. Thus, the "individualism" which has become the
distinguishing feature of modern creativeness has always
been a trait of creation throughout all Islamic eras.
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