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The Architect in Islamic Civilization
Dr.
Khalid Azab(*)
Although architects played a distinct role in
Islamic architecture, this role remained undocumented as a result of the
ignorance by researchers of its nature and their presumption of its similarity
to that of architects in contemporary times. A1 Qalqashandi identified the
architect as the 'person who is in charge of designing the layout and proportion
of a building and supervising the workers(1). Ibn Khaldun described the
architect as the “the person engaged in architecture” and architecture as the
science of buildings, their construction and variations, of lands and their
surface areas, of digging waterways, clearing canals, building bridges and other
such activities.(2) The architect was also known under the names of mason and
builder.(3)
Architectural Drawings:
It is unfortunate that no specimens of
architectural drawings made by Muslims have reached us. However, their
achievements speak eloquently of their use of architectural drawings, a use that
is obvious in the following three axes. The first of these are the architectural
vestiges that have survived and that stand witness to the meticulousness of the
Muslim architect in his work. This precision is manifest in the highly exact
proportions of the components of buildings,(4) and the attention paid by the
architect to the nature of the edifice being erected and its surrounding
environment. It is also clear in the architectural inventiveness of Muslim
architects and the degree of their talent, including innovations in military
architecture. The walls erected by Badr A1 Jamali in the Fatimid Era, between
480 and 485 A.H./1087-1092 A.D., reveal great inventiveness and reflect an
extraordinary architectural sense of creativity. The structure includes the huge
spiral staircase that connects the platform of the walls from the inside and the
roof of the structure containing the Nasr gate, and spirals around a huge
chiseled stone pillar. But the impressive innovation is most apparent in the
building of a hemispheric vault that rises on an incline with the semicircular
staircase, thus achieving the effect of a curve running in different directions
and resulting in spherical surfaces that involve greater difficulty at design
and execution. All of this reflects an impressive knowledge and a talent for
descriptive architecture. Another architectural innovation is found at the
depression of the wall at the angle where it faces the minaret of the Mosque of
Al Hakim.(5)
Other existing architectural marvels testify to
the intimate knowledge by Muslim architects of descriptive architecture,
considered one of the most complex sciences of modern times. During the Mamluke
era, architects developed stone as a building material. Stones were used for the
first time in building Mamluke minarets when the architect Ibn Assioufi built
the minaret of the Aqbaghawiyya School. Prior to that, bricks were the building
material of choice for minarets. The use of stones in the building of Mamluke
minarets led to a revolution in building styles as it allowed for benefiting
from the stone's building advantages and was reflected in the minaret's
elevation, shape and size. This development reached its apogee with the Ghurid
two-tiered minaret which had two stairways, a body covered in Qashani tiles and
an upper floor in the form of a hexadecagon.(6)
The second source is the architectural books that
survived or did not survive but were mentioned in historical records. Some of
these works may not have a direct relevance to the subject of architectural
drawings, but their scientific topics were related to architecture as an art and
a science. Among these works is “Architectural Works Needed by Builders”,
written by Abu Al Wafa Al Boujzani who died in 998 A.D.,(7) the book written by
Ahmed Ibn Omar Al Karaissi and titled “Hissab Addour”, and the book “The
Circumference of the Circle.”(8) Some of the other books pertain to the
legislation of architecture written by architects such as “Kitab Al I'lan bi
Ahkam A1 Bunyan” by Ibn Rami. There are also records of correspondence which
addressed one or the other architectural aspects. These include the letter to
Badhahang written by Abu Rajab, and the manuscript known as “A Letter on
Architectural Matters” by Abu Mansour Ibn Ali. This letter addressed fifteen
issues in which Abu Mansour referred to the use of the compass and theoretical
arguments, and addressed the complex mental aspects of the resolved questions
that represented some of the dilemmas encountered by architects in their
activities.(9)
Let us stop briefly at the manuscript of Abu Al
Wafa Al Bouzjani. The manuscript contains architectural equations that were of
great help to architects. It also quotes a conversation between an architect and
a craftsman, revealing the close relationship between the two. This is one of
the few conversations quoted in heritage books. The book comes in thirteen
chapters and is more like a guidebook for architects. One of the chapters
addressed the use of the ruler and the compass, another equivalence in forms, a
chapter on applying the circle to forms, and yet another chapter on dividing
squares into squares and vice-versa.(10) Of the book of Rachid Eddine Al
Mi'mari Al Farisi who lived in the 13th century A.D., nothing survived but the
index where headings pertained to the rules of building houses for habitation,
places of worship, fortifications, and information on building mausoleums. Many
architectural theories were recorded in a book written by Safar Afandi on the
works of Mahmoud Agha, chief court architect of the Ottoman state in the 17th
century. One may wonder about the lack of clarity on the link between standing
architectural models and the architectural books written by Muslim architects.
The book of the Persian architect Ghayat Eddine Al Kashi, written in 1423 A.D.,
shows with the help of charts the way of designing arches in building.(11)
The third source lies in the historical events
that confirm the use by Muslim architects of architectural drawings when they
built their edifices. One of these events was the founding of Baghdad. When Al
Mansur launched the works after he personally chose the site, he appointed the
architects Abdullah Ibn Mehrez, Al Hajjaj Ibn Youssuf, Imrane Ibn Waddah and
Shiha Ibn kuthayyir. He ordered them to make the number of shops large so that
each suburb could have enough open and close-ended streets and alleys to service
all the houses. He also instructed them to name each street after the chief who
was residing there, the virtuous man who dwelled there or the origin of the
people who lived in a specific quarter. He set the width of the street at fifty
yards and that of the alleys at sixteen yards. To each of the four architects he
assigned a quarter of the surface area of the city to build up and placed two of
his men to supervise the works.(12) This is an indication of the double duty of
the architect who used to design and to supervise implementation and had
administrators at his service to help him in this task. This record also shows
that the project owner was able to make recommendations and suggestions that the
architect had to adhere to when making his drawings.(13) Caliph Abu Jaafar A1
Mansur asked architects to show him the preliminary outline which was drawn up
in ash and walked around the town's streets and quarters before approving the
design and ordering its execution.(14)
A similar arrangement was followed when Caliph A1
Mamum Ibn Mussa directed his architect saying: “If you build, make the building
strong and indestructible so that its vestiges and layout may remain
standing.”(15) When Ahmed Ibn Toulon began building his mosque in Al Qatay (old
Cairo) in 263 A.H./876 A.D., his architect wrote to him saying: “I will build it
as you wish for it to be, with no pillars but the two pillars of the Qibla, and
I will make a drawing thereof that you may see it.” He called for parchment and
a drawing of the mosque was made which the Caliph appreciated and praised.(16)
The oldest surviving Islamic architectural drawing is preserved at the
Uzbekistan University for Oriental Sciences. It dates back to the 8th century
A.H./16th century A.D. and is part of the Uzbek Collection. It presents an
illustrative diagram using the square as a unit.(17) The drawing pertains to a
garden in Afghanistan and the square units ranged in width from 42 to 62
millimeters.
Ibn Khaldun pointed out that the use of
geometrical shapes in the architecture of his time required a special knowledge
of measures and proportion in order to translate the shapes from concept to
reality. The full expertise of Muslim architects in architectural drawing
reached its apogee in the Ottoman era, to judge from the following famous phrase
uttered by architect Sinan: “I immediately sketched a beautiful and
comprehensive drawing which was highly appreciated by the Sultan.” During the
Ottoman reign, architects often drew up only the lower levels and they sometimes
simplified the facades. They rarely included in the drawing more than the basic
lines. Because the architect was the designer and the builder as the same time,
he often left details until the phase of actual implementation. The archives of
the Tubkuserai Palace (Istanbul) house several examples of drawings made by
Ottoman architects. The detailed descriptions of architectural units and
engravings in the documents preserved by the Waqfs Authority list the special
terminology related to every architectural or decorative element. This
terminology and the intricate descriptions of the endowed buildings point to the
existence of an entire science, architecture, which had its specific
terminology.
The interest that the sultans of the Mamluke era
took in architecture resulted in the golden age of this science with many
architectural innovations. It helped highlight the important role of the
architect as a designer and a builder at the same time. He was considered the
man of expertise consulted by sultans and princes wishing to build an edifice or
carry out some other project. When Sultan al-Zahir (Baibars) wished to build his
mosque in the famous al-Zahir quarter in Cairo in 665 A.H./1266 A.D., he sent
Ataybek Faris Eddine Aqtay, Assahib Fakhr Eddine Ibn Assahib Bahaa Eddine and a
group of architects to choose a site for the construction of the mosque. On
Thursday 8 Rabiaa II 665 A.H./1266 A.D., the Sultan came out with them to
inspect the site they had chosen. They presented him with the preliminary cost
evaluation and other relevant matters, and then a drawing of the mosque was made
for him. He instructed them to build one of its gates to resemble the gate of
Az-Zahiriyya School (in Damascus), and to raise a dome above the mosque's mihrab
to equal the Imam Chafii's dome in size.(18)
Architects also carried out drawings of existing
edifices. When the Ghurid sultan expressed a desire to know the layout of the
city of Alexandria in 916 a.h., he commissioned the architect Hassan Assayyad to
do so. The architect chose an empty plot close to the Matariyya quarter and drew
up in gypsum a layout of the city with its towers, gates, walls and houses. Then
he called the Sultan to inspect it. The Sultan came out of the fortress on
Wednesday 19 Rajab 916 A.H./1510 A.D. to inspect the layout and was impressed
with it.(19)
Some princes developed a taste for drawing the
layouts of the edifices they wished to build. In the 7th century A.H/14th A.D.,
Prince Alaa Eddine A1 A'maa, trustee of the Waqfs of Al Quds and Al Khalil
personally drew up the initial outline of the building then outlined it in
gypsum on the ground for the workers.(20) The use of gypsum powder to make the
outline to be followed by the workers in digging the foundations was a practice
that is still in use today.(21)
Al Baghdadi confirms the above when he says: “If
they -the people of Egypt- wished to build a royal house or a market place, the
architect would be sent for and commissioned. He would head out to the vacant
lot, empty hilly plot or other surface area, divide it in his mind and outline
it as proposed to him. He would tackle one part of the plot, build it and
complete it so that people can inhabit it and benefit from it. Then, he would
move to the next part and the one after it until he completes all parts with no
fault and no rectification.”(22) At that time, the techniques and style of
building and most important of these was the theory of support walls and
cornerstones, were among the factors that helped implementation in this order.
Furthermore, the method made it possible to inaugurate buildings even before
their completion, a necessity that was dictated by the desire to celebrate the
inauguration of edifices, particularly religious ones, often inaugurated soon
after the completion of the qibla hall.(23)
A1 Alfi, one of the leading Mamluke princes in
Egypt during the Ottoman era, designed a palace for himself in A1 Azbakiyya in
Cairo. He made a drawing of this palace on large parchment, and entrusted the
implementation of the design to Katikhda Zul Faqar who did not respect the
drawing made. As a result, A1 Alfi demolished the palace and then rebuilt it.(24)
The various works of an architectural edifice
often progressed in a simultaneous manner. In the project of Dar Assaltana in
Damascus, supervised by Prince Alaa Eddine Ash-Shujaii in 690 A.H./1290 A.D., he
sought to expedite the work and urged the workers to proceed in haste. When he
started digging the foundations, the carpenters had already started work on the
ceilings and carpentry. This would not have been possible without detailed
drawings of the edifice made before actual work began.(25)
Models:
The role of architects in Islamic civilization was
not limited to architectural drawings, but exceeded it to the fashioning of
miniature models of buildings. This practice was common among Muslim rulers and
was used on several occasions. The oldest prototype in Islamic architecture
represented the Silsila Dome and is still in existence. When it was first built
and before its renovation, a model was built and used later on in building the
Dome of the Rock in 72 A.H./961 A.D. When King Abdulmalik Marwan wished to build
the Dome of the Rock, he described to the architects the shape he wanted the
dome to look like. They fashioned a prototype of the Silsila Dome for him which
he liked and gave his directives for the Dome of the Rock to be built according
to the model presented to him.(26)
When the minaret of the mosque of Tuzer, a city in
Ifriqiyah (Tunisia), was being built in 422 A.H./1030 A.D. and its minaret had
reached its height, the architect felt that his death was near. He fashioned
three models in wax for its apex so that his successor could choose the one he
liked to finish the minaret. He also named an architect from Qayrawan to
complete the work after his death.(27)
The interest that the Moroccan Sultan Abu Inan Al
Marini took in Gibraltar after its restoration and expansion in 733 A.H./1332
A.D. reached such extent that he ordered the fashioning of a miniature model of
the mountain complete with its fortress, towers, gates, plants, mosques and
everything seen on the mountain, including the reddish soil. The model was made
and seen by Ibn Battuta who described it as “an extraordinary artifact
displaying great craftsmanship and truly appreciated by those who had seen the
mountain and could see the small replica.(28) The wooden models which were
often carved before construction were used by architects to convince the owner
to proceed with the construction. This method was used at some stage in building
the Taj Mahal. The use of prototypes became common practice in the Ottoman era.
Wooden and silver models such as the one of the Izet Pasha Mosque became common.
Records also mention models fashioned out of wax. It is a known fact that the
Ottoman sultan Mohammed I only became convinced of constructing one of the
Ottoman buildings after he saw a miniature model of it.(29)
Cost Estimates and Closing Accounts:
With the help of the plans prepared for him and
the costs of construction materials and manpower, the architect made an
evaluation of the building's construction costs. After completion, this would be
called the itemized list and helped the owner of the project gain clarity on the
costs. When the architect Saleh Ibn Nafii designed for Ikhshid a garden and a
palace in Rawda (Cairo) for Ikhshid, the latter approved the design and inquired
about the cost estimate. He was told that it was thirty thousand dinars. He
asked for the cost to be lowered then authorized the execution.(30)
Imad Eddine Al Asphahani, a statesman in the court
of Salah Eddine El Ayyoubi, quoted a highly important text which was later on
mentioned by A1 Bindari in his book “Sana Al Barq Ash-Shami”. The text pertains
to the walls enclosing Cairo and which were built by Salah Eddine to protect the
city from possible Crusade attacks. The text reads: “When Sultan Salah Eddine
conquered Egypt and Allah granted him victory over the enemies there, he saw
that Cairo(31) and A1 Fustat had each a wall surrounding them and providing
little protection, and that their inhabitants had no army to protect and defend
them. He said: “If I build a wall around each of these two cities separately,
they will each need their own armies and sentinels. It is my opinion to enclose
the two cities behind one and the same wall that would stretch from bank to bank,
then place my trust in Allah to protect them”. He ordered the building of the
Fortress(32) in the middle, next to the mosque of Saad Addawla on the Moqattam
mountain. He begun construction outside Cairo starting with a tower at the
Moqattam and ending it at the higher levels of Cairo with other towers which he
connected to the Greater Tower. Records kept by his subordinates showed the
measurements of the precincts of Al Fustat and Cairo, including the coast and
the mountain, to be twenty-nine thousand three hundred and two yards. The
records show that the distance between the Moqattam Fortress on the Nile bank
and the tower at A1 Koum A1 Ahmar on the bank of Masr was ten thousand five
hundred yards. It also showed that the distance from the fortress on A1 Moqattam
to the wall of the fortress by the mosque of Saad Addawla was eight thousand
ninety two yards. From the side of the fortress wall next to the mosque of Saad
Addawla to the tower of Al Koum A1 Ahmar, there were seven thousand two hundred
and ten yards. All of this included the arches, body and towers from one bank of
the Nile to the other, after verifications and modifications. The unit of
measure used here in the Hashemite yard and the supervision was conducted by
Bahaa Eddine Qaraquche.(33)
It is worthy of note that when Imad Eddine wrote
about the wall, he was not reporting on a standing edifice that he saw with his
own eyes but quoting information found in records. This means that while he was
engaged in his occupations at the secretariat and handling correspondence for
Salah Eddine El Ayyoubi, he became acquainted with the project of the walls in
the records and cost estimate made for it. This emerges from the details that
are thus provided, knowing that the project was never completed according to the
plans initially made.
It was common practice in olden times for the
architect or the project supervisor to provide the owner with the itemized list
and final accounts of the project. When Zubaida, wife of Haroun Arrachid, was
presented with an account of the expenditure involved in creating the watering
source “Ain Zubaida”, installed on the way from Baghdad to Mekkah, she took the
accounts and threw them in the river saying: “Let us leave accounts to the Day
of Reckoning”. Similarly, when Sultan Nour Eddine Mahmoud built his mosque in
Mosoul and completed it in 586 A.H./1172 A.D., he was presented with the
accounts of his spending as he sat by the Tigris River. He said “We have done
this for the love of Allah, let us leave the accounts to the Day of Judgment”,
and threw the papers in the river.(34)
The Architect as an Expert:
Courts of justice often sought the expertise of
architects to arbitrate in the conflicts that arose within society or those that
opposed the authorities to the common people. This close association between the
body of architects and judges speaks volumes for the nature of rulings issued
with regard to the organization of the urbanization movement in society.(35) One
amusing quarrel recorded in the waqf records and where architects were called
upon was a conflict about the opening of a window and for which the expertise of
architect Ahmed Ibn Ali and architect Ahmed Ibn Mohammed Ibn Othmane was called
for. It is a fact that opening windows is one of the actions that may impinge
upon the privacy of adjoining buildings.(36) To ascertain prejudice, experts are
needed, a matter established in all audit and finance books where these experts
are referred as the urafa (knowledgeable ones).(37) Architects in these cases
play the role of the knowledgeable ones whether their services were solicited by
the controller, the special court or the judges. Ibn Rami, a Tunisian architect
who lived in the 14th century, was requested to look at the development of
construction on roads and markets, and judges entrusted him with a number of
cases referred to him in his capacity as an expert.(38) In Ottoman times, courts
were entrusted with new tasks such as those falling within the ambit of the
Muhtasib (inspector) in addition to the regulation of professions. The
supervision of building matters was part of the duties of the Muhtasib.(39)
The Muhtasib was, for example, in charge of
verifying the quality of building materials.(40) One of the responsibilities of
the Memar Pashi (chief of the architect corps) Prince Sanqar Ibn Ali Jaweesh,
was to set the price for gypsum and inspect its quality.(41) The records of
Ottoman courts of justice clearly show the relationship between the
architectural corps and these courts. In fact, the assistance of the architects
was sought in determining the prices of property and their locations, the degree
of their prejudice to neighbors and passers-by, and the amounts of compensations
for prejudices suffered. This is exactly what architects Abdeljawad Ibn Mohammed
Attaweel and Barakt Ibn Ali did when they served as counsel in a case reviewed
by the court of Assaleh Talaaii.(42) Architects were also called upon to
arbitrate in cases of conflict about the limits of buildings. One of these was
the case of Mohammed Ibn Nasouh who went to the court of Al Bab A1 Ali in Cairo
to put a stop to the violation by Abdelghani Al Aseel of the waqf of Ibraheem
Abu Osboo. He appealed for an expertise to be conducted by architects who were
knowledgeable about buildings, their measurements and the town's sections and
quarters. After an inspection by Cherif Hejazy Al Qoraafy, Nasef Ibn Abdeddayem,
and Shahada Ibn Abi Ennasr Toulouni, it turned out that the plot of land subject
of the conflict was indeed part and parcel of the waqf of Abu Osboo. In fact,
the romt, rabt and the building were all connected to each other from the lower
to the higher levels, and the old waqf building stands witness to that.(43) One
name that stands out among the names of the architects mentioned is that of
Shahada Ibn Nasr Toulouni who belonged to the Toulouni family which had a
prestigious status among the architects corps from early in the Mamluke era. It
is a known fact that professions such as that of architects were inherited by
children from their fathers.
The records of the courts of justice also reveal
the existence of bodies of architects that were in charge of regulating and
organizing the profession and that granted the status of a member to those
deserving of the title of architect. These orders did not thrive only in large
metropolitans but also existed in medium-sized and small towns. One of these was
the corps of architects of the town of Fouwa in Egypt. The chief of the order of
architects in Fouwa was held in great esteem. Courts of justice often tasked him
to inspect buildings and report on their viability for residence, and to divide
the property that the court deemed fit to divide between the conflicting
parties. One of these records reads: “A legally recognized division and
modification by the chief of the corps of architects in Fouwa, Zaini Abdurrahman
Ibn Abdellatif Al Banna Ash-Shihabi Ahmed Ibn Abdel Karim A1 Banna. The two
parties were notified, attended and witnessed the proceedings of the division”.
The opinion of the chief of architects was held in high esteem, and as such he
was entrusted with the supervision of the maintenance of such public facilities
in Fouwa as mosques, streets and others. The sheikh of architects also
supervised the rebuilding of the pavement adjoining the minaret of Abu Annajat
mosque and the restoration of the minaret.(44)
Prominent Architects:
Many biographies of Muslim architects have
survived to this day although the most prominent of them lived in later eras. In
most cases, the architects whose biographies have survived to our time are those
who built edifices for sultans, kings and princes. This does not mean that they
did not extend their services to the public, but sometimes they themselves were
part of the court. This was the case during the era of Annaser Mohammed Ibn
Qalawoun who set up a secretariat for construction and building activities.
Under the Ottoman rein, official architects had their own secretariat which was
headed by a Me’mar Pashi (chief architect). There are also accounts with the
names of innumerable architects who worked on public edifices, mentioned in
endowment documents and in the records of courts of justice. Some architects
acquired great fame for building impressive structures such as the architect Abu
Bakr Ibn Al Bassisi who specialized in bridges, and the architect of the Akka
port, Abu Bakr Al Maqdissi Al Banna.(45) But most prominent of all were the
Muslim architects who left behind monuments that witness to their talent and
creativity such as Ibn Ghanaim -Abrahim Ibn Ghanaim Ibn Said-, a 7th century
architect who entertained close ties with Sultan al-Zahir Baibars Al Bindaqdari.
He carried out all the buildings the sultan erected in Damascus, and his name is
still engraved on the wall of the al-Zahiriyya School in this city.(46) Ibn
Touloun Assalehi mentions a palace that Ibn Ghanaim built for al-Zahir Baibars
in the Damascus meadow.
Muslims were familiar with the transfer of a
profession through generations as the son learns the trade from the father.
Thus, many techniques were practically secrets that were exclusively inherited
within the family. This explains the minimal number of works that reached us
addressing the various trades. One of the most renowned families whose children
inherited the profession of architecture was the Toulouni family which became
famous under the Mamluke reign and operated in Egypt until the Ottoman time.
Most prominent among this family was Shihab Eddine Ahmed Ibn Mohammed Ibn Ali
Toulouni, chief architect during the reign of sultan al-Zahir Barquq. In his
biography, Ibn Fajr A1 Asqalani says that he was knowledgeable about his trade
from very early and called him the master of all architects. His elevated status
was such that the sultan married his daughter. He was appointed to head the
building of the Holy Sanctuary in Mekkah and visited Mekkah regularly for that
purpose until his death there after he finished rebuilding the holy
precincts(47) in 801 A.H.(48) His son, Mohammed Ibn Ahmed, inherited his trade
but died in the same year as his father. Another architect from this family was
Abderrahim Ibn Ali Ibn Omar Az-Zine Toulouni, architect of the Holy Sanctuary.
He was called the architect as well as the son of the mason, and died in 819
A.H.(49)
Assejini: Ahmed Ibn Ubaid Allah Ibn Mohammed
excelled in many sciences particularly algebra, geometry, architecture and
astrology. He was born in Sejjin in the Gharbiyya Governorate in Egypt,(50) then
lived in Cairo and was subsequently referred to as Al Qahiri. He lived near
Medinah in Saudi Arabia for approximately two years to finalize some buildings.
After building many edifices there, he returned to Cairo where many scholars
visited him to learn from him till he fell and injured the nerves in his left
foot. He was ill for a while then died in 855 A.H.(51)
The architectural movement in terms of official
structures and edifices built by princes and notables relied on architects.
Buildings for the use of the general public were carried out by smaller
architects who served at the same time as the supervisor of the construction
works and were often called the master, and sometime the builder. In some rural
parts of the world, the builder carries out both design and implementation. This
can be clearly seen in the Egyptian countryside where only a short while ago
builders also designed the houses. They would first draw an outline using
powdered lime after discussing with the owner what he wished to build, then they
would carry out the works. This method is common in Matoubes where some families
are renowned for this activity. One of these families is the Othmane family that
inherited this trade from its ancestors. The person who engaged in and excelled
at this activity was called the Meallim (master). The same method is followed in
the Arab Peninsula.(52) On occasions, the building works were carried out by
the owner with the help of neighbors who had a prior experience in
building.(53) It is interesting to note that this category of architects who
inherited the profession existed until a recent past. One of them was Mohamed
Ghattas Annahat who took part in the renovation of many monuments in Cairo. He
dismantled and then put together the caravansary of Faraj Ibn Barquq after
making a drawing of it. He also painted the northwestern gate of the
caravansary, a beautiful gate decorated with muqarnas. Mohamed Al Habbal
inherited the trade from his ancestors and remained active in the restoration of
monuments until his death. He drew the entrance of the Qaousoun Palace and the
entrance of the Sultan Hassan School despite their great difficulty.(54)
All of this goes to show the important role of the
architect in Islamic architecture within the society where he was born and in
the traditions and values in which he became steeped. As such, he was able to
give shape to a product that had distinct features and that evolved at the same
pace as this society. The product involved the transformation of the raw
material into an appropriate shape and its use as a means to meet the
requirements of the user. The process of developing the product is based on
transforming a raw material derived from nature through a socially inherited
legacy of knowledge that is also acquired through exposure. This interaction
occurs when a set of ingredients bring into play three factors:
- The performing individual such as the architect,
the craftsman and the end user who will benefit from the architectural product.
- The social need or the appreciation of the
specificity of what society needs in terms of architecture, and defining this
need as a requirement that may be met under the circumstances and according to
society's resources. This request involves financial and emotional aspects,
including the satisfaction of the emotional, identity and pleasure calls.
- The social technology of which the ingredients
comprise the raw materials, knowledge of the characteristics of the material,
the processing of this material, the ability to identify the social need and to
take a stance thereto.(55)
The Muslim architect dealt with all these elements
with great talent and skill. He fully understood the nature of the social needs.
He engaged in an intellectual interaction with the end user, resulting in an
architecture that fully met the latter's needs. He harnessed the raw element
drawn from nature to serve architecture. However, this intellectual interaction
was soon extinguished at the turn of the nineteenth century. The awe felt
towards the West became the pivotal point of life in this century, and
architecture served as the medium through which Western thought, with its values
and concepts, penetrated Muslim society. It would be absurd to say that all
architecture hailing from the west was useless and inappropriate. There are in
Western architecture experiences that attempted to bring what is beneficial to
humanity, either by inventing new, cheap and practical building materials, or by
innovating through designs never witnessed by humanity before. The problem lies
with those architects who totally and unwittingly surrender to the Western
style, oblivious of the environmental differences for example, and even of the
differences in values, norms and traditions.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
(*) A researcher in Islamic archaeology, Arab
Republic of Egypt.
(1) Al Qalqashandi: “Sobh Al A”sha”, vol. 3, page
667.
(2) Hassan A1 Basha: “A1 Wadaif Wal Alqab”, vol.
3, page 1111. The art of architecture was also known among Muslims as the
“science that provides knowledge about measures and components, their proportion
to each other, their degrees and the specificities of their forms. The subject
matter of this science consists in the absolute proportions applied to lines,
surfaces, informative mass and other relevant aspects such as angles, lines and
forms. The benefit of this science is to gain knowledge of these aspects in
existing structures and confer on the mind sharpness and acuity. It provides a
tremendous mental exercise since it has been agreed that architectural sciences
are the most pragmatic of all sciences. Another benefit of this science is
victory over ignorance thereof. It is an exact science where there is no room
for imagination, nor does it allow the mind to indulge in such exercise.
Compounded ignorance is nothing but the victory of the imagination over the
mind.”
(3) Ibid.
(4) Dr. Ali Ghaleb: “Proportional Harmony in the
Architecture of Schools of the Mamaluke Era in Egypt”, authenticated by Dr. Amal
A1 Amri, under publication, Silsilat Al Miat Kitab, High Egyptian Council for
Monuments.
(5) Farid Chafii: “Arab Islamic Architecture:
Past, Present and Future”, pp. 75-76. King Saud University, Riyadh, 1982.
(6) Mohammed Abdelsattar Othamne: “Functional
Theory in Surviving Religious Monuments in Cairo”, p. 241, Dar A1 Wafaa Lidonia
Tebaa Wa An-Nashr, Alexandria, 2000.
(7) Sherbel Dagher: “Islamic Art in Arab Sources:
The Industry of Beauty and Aesthetics”, Dar A1 Athar A1 Islamiyya, Kuwait, 1999.
(8) Hassan Abdelwahhab: “Architectural Drawings in
Islamic Architecture”, p. 77, Sumar Magazine, parts 1 and 2, issue No. 14, 1958.
(9) Ibn Iraq, Anu Mansur Ibn Ali: “Letters on
Architecural Matters”, bulletin of the Ottoman Ministry of Education, Hyderabad,
India.
(10) Sherbel Dagher, ibid., pp. 45-46.
(11) Ronald Lewcock: “Materials and Technique”, p.
132.
(12) Al Yaqubi, Ahmed Ibn Abi Yaqub Bin Wadeh: “Al
Buldan”, pp. 241-243, Leyden 1892. Hassan Abdelwahhab: “Architectural Drawings”,
p. 78. Mustafa Al Mousoui: “Historical Factors in the Development of Arab
Islamic Cities”, page 135, Dar Arrachid Linnashr, 1982.
(13) Dr Mohammed Abdelsattar Othman: “Functional
Theory in Surviving Religious Monuments in Cairo”, page 233.
(14) Hassan Abdelwahhab, ibid., page 81.
(15) Attabari, Abu Jaafar Mohammed Ibn Jarir:
“History of Messengers and Kings”, vol. 9, page 261. Hassan Abdelwahhab, ibid.,
page 78.
(16) Al Maqrizi: “Al Khutat”, vol. 2, pp. 264-265.
(17) Ronald Lewcock: “'Materials and Techniques”,
page 32.
(18) Ibid., page 300.
(19) Ibn Ayyas: “Badaii Azzohour”, vol. 4, page
196. Al Jabarti: “Ajaib Al Athar”, vo. 3, p. 175. Hassan Abdelwahhab:
“Achitectural Drawings”. page 82, Mohammed Abdelsattar: “Functional Theory in
Surviving Religious Monuments in Cairo”, page 236.
(20) Hassan Abdewahhab, ibid., pp. 81-82.
(21) Mohammed Abdelsattar, ibid., page 234.
(22) A1 Baghdadi, Abdellatif Ibn Youssef: “Benefit
and Lessons from Witnessed Events and Incidents in the Land of Egypt”, page 41,
Masriyya, 1988.
(23) Mohammed Abdesattar, ibid., page 234.
(24) “Ajaib A1 Athar”, vol. 4, p. 27.
(25) Hassan Abdelwahhab: “Architectural Drawings”,
page 83.
(26) Ibid., page 85.
(27) Ibid., page 86.
(28) Ibn Battuta: “Tuhfat Annodhar Fi Gharaib A1
Amsar”, vol. 2, page 179.
(29) Pelagia Astrnidou: “The Architect in Ottoman
Time” a study in the commemorative book published by Attamimi Foundation for
Scientific Research in honor of Michael Kayle, Tunis, 2000.
(30) Al Maqrizi: “Al Khutat”, vol. 2, p. 181.
(31) Masr refers to the city of Al Fustat of which
the name evolved over time to become the name of the whole country. The city was
the hub of power and economy and later on became the Old Egypt, as it is known
today.
(32) The Fortress of Salah Eddine El Ayyoubi is
still in existence today.
(33) Al Bindari, Al Fath Ibn Ali Ibn Mohammed:
“Sana A1 Barq Ash-Shami”, p. 119, authenticated by Fathiyya Nibrawi, Maktabat A1
Khanigi, Cairo, 1979. Osama Talaat: “The Walls of Salah Edine and Their Impact
on the Expansion of Cairo in the Mamluke Era”, p. 26, a Master’s Thesis, Faculty
of Archaeology, Cairo Univesrity, 1992.
(34) Hassan Abdelwahhab, ibid., p. 84.
(35) Khaled Azab: “Jurisprudence of Islamic
Architecture”, p. 50, Dar Annashr lil Jamiaat, Cairo, 1997.
(36) The prejudice of exposure means looking into
a neighbor's house through a window. Juridical sources contain rulings as to the
organization of the opening of windows. The scholar Shams Eddine Mohammed Ibn A1
Minhaji Al Asiouti, a 9th century A.H. historian, wrote the following about the
subject of “Opening Windows”: “The owner has the right to enjoy his property in
a way that does not prejudice his neighbor”. Scholars disagreed as to the act
that prejudices the neighbor. Abu Hanifa and Chafii allowed it while Malek and
Ahmed declared it as unlawful. For example, a man opens a window or an aperture
that overlooks his neighbor's house. They agreed that a Muslim can elevate the
building of his house but cannot breach the privacy of the neighbor. If the roof
of a person is higher than those of his neighbors, Malek and Ahmed said, it is
his duty to erect a partition that would prevent him from looking into his
neighbor's house. Abu Hanifa and Chafii, on the other hand, said that he was
under no obligation to do so. Khaled Azab: “Jurisprudence of Islamic
Architecture”, p. 48, Dar Annashr lil Jamiaat, Cairo, 1997.
(37) Achizari, Abdurrahman Ibn Nasr: “Nihayat
Ar-Rutba bi Talab A1-Hisba”.
(38) Ibn Rami: “A1 I'lan Bi Ahkam Al Bunyan”, page
15, authenticated by Dr Farid Suleiman, Centre for University Publishing,
Tunisia, 1999.
(39) This includes the task of removing protruding
porches in markets by the Muhtasib (inspector) in 590 A.H. following a directive
from the sultan. Dr. Hassan A1 Pasha, ibid., vol. 3, p. 1035.
(40) Ibn Al Oukhouwa: “Maalim Al Qurba fi Ahkam
Al Hissba”, pp. 234-235, authenticated by Robin Lowe, Maktabat Al Mutannabi,
Cairo, undated.
(41) Registers of the Assalih Court in Cairo,
register 323, entry 453, page 137.
(42) Ibid., register 582, p. 173.
(43) Al Bab Al Aali Court, register 144, entry
746, p. 229.
(44) Khalid Azab: “Architectural and Artistic
Characterstics of The Mosque Monuments of Fouwa”, pp. 36-37. Symposium on Mosque
Architecture, Vol. 7, King Saud University, Riyadh, 1999.
(45) Mohammed Kurd Ali: “Khutat Ash-Sham”, vol. 5,
pp. 248-300.
(46) On the architecture of this school, cf.:
Akram A1 'Alabi: “Khutat Ash-Sham”, pp. 135-136, Dar Attibaa, Damascus, 1989.
(47) Ahmed Teimur; “Muslim Architects”, page 76,
Architecture Magazine, issue No. 2, February 1923.
(48) A1 Asqalani, Al Hafid Ibn Hijr: “Inbaa A1
Ghamr Bi Anbaa Al Omr”, vol. 2, pp. 58-59, authenticated by Dr. Hassan A1
Habachi, Higher Council for Islamic Affairs, Cairo, 1994.
(49) Ahmed Teimur: ibid., p. 80.
(50) One of the governorates of the Nile Delta in
Egypt.
(51) Ahmed Teimur: ibid., p. 79.
(52) Mohammed Ibn Abdallah Noueicer: “Features of
Architectural Heritage in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia -Najd Region”, page 147.
Department of King Abdulaziz, Riyadh, 1999.
(53) Ibid., p. 147.
(54) Hassan Abdelwahhab: “Architectural Drawings”,
page 87.
(55) Rifaat A1 Jadirji: “The Social Dimension of
What is Built”, p. 167. “Abwab” Magazine, issue No. 18, 1998.
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