Islam in China
(Present Revival and Future Prospects) 

By Dr. Moufid Zaidi

Introduction :

Arabs maintained trading relations with China very early in the history of this country. In fact, these relations, date back to the pre-Islamic era when Arabs played a role of intermediaries who controlled the flow of goods between Eastern lands and Western ones such as the Europe of the Middle Ages. The inhabitants of the Arab Peninsula played a leading part in the field of commercial transactions and social relationships between Arabs in general, and the inhabitants of the far reaches of China.

After the emergence of Islam and its spread throughout the Arab peninsula in the lifetime of the Prophet Mohammed (PBUH), the commencement of the conquest that took Islam from the east to the west, and the revival of Arab trade with China where Islam spread, Muslims enjoyed stability in major Chinese towns. Waves of Muslim migrants continued to arrive in China under the Mongol reign, followed by military expeditions that hailed from Turkistan and settled in China after crushing the internal revolution that had broken out there(1).

As a consequence, relations between Arabs and China, with roots that stretch far back into the depths of history, were built on trust, cooperation and mutual interests. Islam thus spread peacefully in China, contrary to the claims of some western historians who claim that Islam spread in China by the force of the sword. In fact, the Chinese, having experienced the honesty, trust and good morals of Muslims and their excellent treatment of other Chinese, realised that such virtues could only find their source in Islam, the religion of tolerance and thus embraced Islam, out of conviction and good faith and not out of compulsion. Islam thus took root and spread in these lands where it is still alive and thriving.

The purpose of the present study is to shed light on the current reality of Islam and Muslims in China, on the revival of Islamic activism among scholars and young people in mosques and Islamic associations, research centres and institutes. It is also an attempt to outline the future prospects of Islamic action, and the obstacles that might stand in its way, and to present few proposals on how to overcome these obstacles in order to ensure that Islam remains alive forever in the hearts and minds of  the Chinese people.

First: The Spread of Islam in China :

There is no disputing the fact that the Chinese first heard about Islam from the Muslim traders who travelled between Chinese trading posts such as Ch’enchung and Canton on the one hand, and Arab ones in Iraq and the Arabian Gulf on the other.(1)

In olden times, Arabs referred to China in terms of its geographical remoteness from the lands of Islam, hence the famous Arab proverb: "Seek knowledge even if it is in China". Historical reports exist of an Arab expedition to China sent in the times of the Prophet (PBUH) and led by Saad Bnu Abi Waqqas (May Allah be Pleased with him). The Chinese still believe that Bnu Abu Waqqas did indeed reach Canton where he died and was buried. His burial place is today a popular and prominent religious memorial where Chinese Muslims gather every year to commemorate passage of this august companion of the Prophet in China(2).

Chinese history books carried reports on Arab lands under the rule of Islam and the transformations that these lands underwent, as well as reports on the spread of Islam in the days of the Prophet. After Islam spread into Central Asia, India and China under the Umayyad Rule, the Chinese also keenly sought information on the life of Arabs and Muslims.

Contact between Islam and the Chinese people occurred over two channels, land and sea. The land itinerary, known as the Khurasan route, was part of the famous Silk Road that crossed Syria, Baghdad, Hamadhan, Qazouin, Rai, Nishapur, Maru and Bukhara, reached Samarkand, then Khoshger and finally Chiennan the ancient Chinese capital. The sea route, followed back then by many Arab and Muslims traders took them from Basra to Abala, Siraf, the Bay of Basra, Muscat, the Gulf of Oman, and then to Dabil (Karachi) then Kolmmili. From India they crossed the Bay of Bengal to Sumatra, Kandrang, then the sea of China, Tangshan and finally Canton, China's largest seaport.

The most consequent attempt to spread Islam in China was undertaken by the commander Qutaiba Ibn Muslim Al Bahili who ruled over Khurasan under the reign of the Caliph Al Waleed Ibn Abdelmalik (705-715 a.d/86-96 A.H.). He led an army from Khurasan to conquer China and “the lands beyond the river” after crossing the Gihun river, entered Bukhara, Samarkand and other cities and reached the frontiers of China in the year 714 A.D./96 A.H. After conquering Koshger, he placed the Chinese before three choices, either embracing Islam, paying the Jizya or engaging in war, upon which they chose to pay the Jizya to the Muslim commander(1).

Thus Islam started to spread among the Chinese in a more efficient way than through the efforts and influence of Arab and Muslim traders who, after reaching these lands, settled there and formed Arab communities that increased steadily in numbers. Most of these Muslims worked in trade, particularly in the southern ports of the country.

Mosques were edified to teach the precepts and rites of Islam. The first mosque was built in Chang'an in 742 A.D./125 A.H. during the rule of the Tang dynasty. This was followed by another mosque in Canton, then in Tianjin during the reign of the Song family. As time went by, Islam spread from the coastal cities inside the country(2).

Relations prospered between the Abbasid rulers and the Chinese as a result of the former’s desire to advance in conquest towards the east, and the subsequent subjugation of all parts of China to Baghdad's rule. This aim was also furthered through the exchange of embassies and trading expeditions sent to the people and rulers of China, especially under the Song family which ruled over China for three centuries. During the reign of this dynasty, relations between China and the Abbasid caliphate were marked by a high level of diplomatic and commercial activity with diplomatic embassies numbering fifteen, a number that reflected the excellence of the relationship between the Abbasids and the Chinese people.(1)

Islam continued to spread in China during the Mongol rule (1280-1368/679-751 a.h.) and reached the tribes living in territories under this rule such as Kashew, and from there the northern and western provinces under the reign of the Jaghtai Mongol kingdom(2). The Mongols displayed a remarkable tolerance towards Islam and other religions. A number of mosques were built and the number of Muslims who migrated from Arab countries and Turkey rose noticeably(3). Rasheed Eddine Fadlallah, author of "Jamii Attawarikh", enumerated from 8 to 12 provinces in China that were governed by Muslims. This serves as a good indicator of the formal recognition and even embracing by the ruling Mongols of the religion of Islam.

During the rule of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644/751-1060 A.H.) which adopted a foreign policy based on isolation, especially from Islamic countries, Islam did not prosper or spread as a direct result of the harsh and violent treatment with which the Ming family treated Muslims. Despite these difficult circumstances, Islam survived and maintained its strength and place in the hearts of the Chinese. Arabic, the language of the Qur’an and of the Hadith, spread, among Chinese Muslims in various parts of the country albeit in a limited fashion (4).

The role of Islam in China weakened noticeably under the rule of the Manchu (1644-1911/1060-1327 A.H.), The religion failed to spread or expand once again as a result of the anti-Islam policy and persecution of Muslims by the Manchus., However, and in spite of the repression and the persecution that Muslims suffered in China, particularly in the nineteenth century, Muslim scholars persevered in their struggle to spread Islam and a new generation of Muslim youth and scholars emerged and Islam continued to exist in the south, the coast, north and west of China. Trade grew between Arabs and Muslims on the one hand, and the Chinese people on the other. Muslims faced force by using force and engaged in Islamic revolutions against the existing rule. When the National Revolution broke out in China, overthrowing the political regime and establishing the republic in 1911, the traditional imperial rule was abolished and a new page in the history of Islam in China was turned.(1)

It was a natural consequence that Muslims supported the new regime led by Sun Yat-Sen after having suffered tyranny and persecution. Under the new regime, Muslims were considered as one of the main five ethnic groups that make up the Chinese nation and were granted the freedom to practice their religious rites in all safety. Muslims settled in most Chinese cities, built mosques, practised their rituals and celebrated their religious and social festivities in freedom. They were assigned a magistrate to arbitrate in their disputes, and Canton became at the time one of the largest Islamic centres of China(2).

The spread of Islam in China was accompanied by a special emphasis on the importance for Muslims of learning the Arabic language, mastering declamation of the Qur’an, understanding fiqh and rite-related lexicon needed in the daily practice of Islam. Emerging scholars and theologians took upon themselves the tasks of explaining the precepts of Islam to people. Arabic terms were assimilated in the daily speech on matters of prayers, sermons and religious preaching. Parts of the Qur’an were translated into the Mongolian language during the Mongol rule, which in turn contributed to the spread of Islam among Mongolian-speaking Chinese(3).

A remarkable feature of Muslim life at this historical era was the excellent morals, virtues and principles upheld by Muslims and which commanded a lot of respect and esteem on the part of the Chinese general public. Indeed, Muslims were renowned for their trustworthiness and honesty in commercial and political dealings. Thanks to these virtues, Islam spread day after day and the number of Chinese Muslims increased, creating a special social and religious environment for Muslims at a time when many religions could not forge a place or grow in China. As Islam was renowned for its tolerance, esteem and peace, features that were much appreciated by the Chinese, some Muslims rose to attain positions as high as that of governors of provinces or cities, and from there filled very high positions under the imperial as well as the republican rule, which denotes the deep respect and lofty position in which ruling regimes held Islam(1).

Second : Islamic Culture in Modern Times :

Islamic culture in modern times China (reigns of the Ming and Ch’ing dynasties) was marked by an emphasis on the part of Chinese Muslims on spiritual aspects and their attempt to integrate these concepts in the local culture by taking interest in Islamic education as dispensed in mosques, the translation of Islamic books into Chinese and spreading the Sufi culture and way. Thus Islam acquired features that were previously unknown to it.

Islamic education spread in mosques far within the country as it used to be under the rule of the Ming family in the tenth century hegira/sixteenth century A.D. Introduced at the hands of Huding Tchu who lived in Xianiang in the province of Chinchi, this learning process then spread to other parts of China where such schools as the Chinchi school were set up focusing on the science of Tawheed (the oneness of God), the Chandong school which dedicated itself to the study of various Islamic sciences, the Yuntan school in rhetorics, shariah, grammar and religious fundamentals. Scholars, specialised teachers and local Imams played an important part in educating new generations about the essentials and teachings of Islam. This helped keep Islam alive and contributed to its dissemination in China in spite of the difficulties that confronted it at certain points in history. Teaching in mosques has remained alive and still continues to be dispensed today.(2)

A movement of translation also started towards the end of the Ming era and in early stages of Ch’ing rule. Islamic books were translated into the Chinese language, particularly south of the Yangtze River where the Han and Hui ethnic groups lived. The purpose behind the translation of Islamic books into Chinese was to improve and increase knowledge about Islam and the Islamic faith. Then this movement evolved and spread to such towns as Nangking and Sutchu with the addition of annotations and comments by Muslim scholars to explain the concepts and terms used in Chinese culture, explain Islamic concepts and compare them to the local culture. Among the scholars who have had a great impact was Wang Dai Yu with his two books: "The truths of the Ancient Religion" and "The Compilation of Islamic Lectures". Other scholars included Ma Chu the author of "Dalail Al Islam", Liu Chi with his two books: "The Basics of Islamic Sufism", and the "Rites of Islamic Religion", and Ma Fu-Chu  with his book: "The Essence of Religion’s Fundamentals" (Khulasat Usul Eddine)(1).

In addition to the activity of translation, the development of teaching in mosques contributed to the explanation of Islam’s sciences, philosophy, morals and thought. Within China, Islamic culture moved from a stage of mere spreading to that of developing, transferred this time from the general people to the intellectual elite. Under the rule of the Yuan family, sufism emerged in China, especially in the Laos valley and the provinces of Xinghai, Qanu and Ningxia where there was a concentration of Hui Muslims. Various schools of Sufism emerged in the region, namely the Qadariyya, the Khafiyya, the Jibriyya and the Bahjariyya. Muslim sufists called themselves the Sufi gia or Min Huan Gia since Sufism in Chinese is Min Huan. Sufism constituted a strong additional spiritual strength for Islam in China and strengthened ties among Chinese Muslims from the Hui ethnicity and other groups(2).

Islamic intellectual movements started in China early in the twentieth century through a call for the reform of Islamic affairs and the development of Islamic education. Thus Tong Tsung created the Mui Wan School in Xingiang and contributed in the creation of the General Society for Islamic Instruction in East Asia, while An Ming created the Waniping School in Beijing, and Wan Kuan set up the Muslims Arab School, also in Beijing. Ma Ling Pe established Kai Xin elementary school in Guiyang(3).

Thirty-six Japan-educated Hui students later on set up the "General Association for Islamic Education for Japan-educated Students” and published the Xing Hu Pian magazine where they declared their objective as being to spread Islamic instruction and reform Islamic affairs. Another Islamic Chinese magazine was published under the name of "The True National Magazine" by a number of Muslim Hui dignitaries. All these activities helped spread and foster culture through the development of Islamic thought and faith during the first half of the 20th century(1).

Young Muslims continued to create Islamic associations. Among these was the "Islamic-Chinese Development Association" created in 1911 by Wang Kwan in Beijing and which later on set up branches in other provinces. The goal of this association was to unify Hui Muslims inside China, spread the message of Islam, raise the intellectual standard of Huis on a practical level and ensure their prosperity. In 1927, the "Islamic Academic Association" was created in Beijing and the "Association for the Support of Islamic Education " in Nxiangu in the Hunan Province. Hada Ching, with the help of other Muslims, created the "Islamic Chinese Association" in Changhai, then the "Islamic Youth Association of Twangchu" was created in 1925. The "General Islamic Chinese Association" was in its turn set up by Iu Ching in 1929, followed by the "Chinese Islamic Youth Association", founded in 1931 and by the "Chinese Association for the Educational Development of the Hui" in Nanxiang. In 1924, Matian Wing Wufutong Sian had created the Chinese Association for Islamic Culture in Shanghai, then in 1939 he founded the Chinese National Front for the Salvation of the Huis, which front moved to the town of Tshuntsing where it changed names to become the Chinese Islamic Union for National Salvation, and the National Chinese Association in 1934(2).

In addition to Chinese, the Arabic language was taught in modern schools for the training of Imams and teachers to master Islamic as well as modern sciences. Such was the case in the Pienning Islamic School for Teachers which was founded by Wang Kwan, the Teachers' School in Jinian, established by Masung Tsing with the objective of training Imams and heads of Islamic association and school headmasters and which, after a number of years, moved to Beijing. Chu Ji -San Wuli Ren Shan created the Islamic School for Teachers in Wanchian, while Machu Yun  started in 1934 the First Arab Chinese Islamic School in Ningxia. These were followed by the Yuntiang School for Teachers and the Pingliang Islamic School in Ningxia where Arabic language, literature, history, geography and mathematics were also taught(3).

Many students from various Chinese schools were sent to study in the Azhar between 1930-1945. These Muslim students, forty in number, came back to China after finishing their studies and took important positions in education and preaching as well as the Waqf and Islamic affairs and evolved into prominent Muslim Chinese scholars. Among these were Mohamed Makin, Abdulrahman Natchung, Lin Tchung, Tchang Yuching, Ismal Majin Ying, Tching Da, Nachiun, Linh Ching Hua, and Ding Tching Ming. Shaquh Xin was in charge of all these expeditions(1).

During this same period, a number of Islamic publications and magazines saw the light. Among these there were the "Islam Monthly" which first appeared in 1925, “Yuwisahwa” in 1928, the “Islamic Dubao” magazine, in addition to the Islamic pamphlets that were distributed in all parts of China. These pamphlets carried titles such as "Islam",  "the Dawn", "China's Islam", “The Chinese Islamic Union for the Nation's Salvation", "Muslims", "Hui Youth". Despite their small circulation, these pamphlets were distributed in the main towns that housed large Muslim communities(2).

As for writing and scientific activity, Muslim scholars authored many works, such as the "Interpretation and Translation of the Meanings of the Holy Qur’an" by Luang Jing Tchai, published in 1932, the "Annotation of the Chinese Translation of the Meanings of the Holy Qur’an" by Lujin Piao and "The Great Faith of the Holy Qur’an" by Yang Tchong Ming, published in 1947. Other such works included Mohammed Makin’s translation of the Qur’an into Chinese, and the other translations of the holy book that had previously been published by Lith Chang in 1927, and by Gi Giwi in 1931.

A number of other works were published on Islamic thought. Among these we may cite : the "Translation and Interpretation of the Sunnah Achcharifa" by Jaiwi Chin, and Malin Lee’s "General Fundaments of Islam". Many Chinese Muslim scholars, supported by Mafu Chiang, compiled and printed Islamic works previously translated into Chinese in an attempt to preserve them from loss or disintegration. Many books were also published on the history of Islam, such as the "History of Chinese Islam" by Jin Ji Tang in 1935, the "Annals of the History of Islam in China" by Kamali Yui in 1940, and the "History of Islam in China" by Gwu Tong published in the same year. Pi Shui also published a "Concise History of Chinese Islam", and "Reference Books on Chinese Islam" while Tche Yuan published "A Concise History of Islam's Emergence in China".(3)

The Hui ethnic group makes up the majority of Chinese Muslims. Through this community, the renaissance of China was interrelated to that of Islam in this country. In fact, Huis contributed to spreading the culture of Islam through the offices of a generation of scholars and educated young people who understood Islam, embraced it and endeavoured to spread it in all integrity and fidelity. Islam contributed to the consolidation of the unity of Chinese ethnicities and to fostering a spirit of peace and solidarity. This was mostly achieved through the culture spread by the Huis in their dealings with the other Chinese ethnicities(1).

The period that followed the Chinese Revolution in 1949 and the subsequent declaration of the "People's Republic of China" witnessed the granting of more religious liberties and freedom to practice religious rites in China. This impacted on Muslims and on the spread of the culture of Islam. However, the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) impinged on the freedom of other religions(2).

Third : Islam in Tibet :

Islam spread in Tibet after Hui Muslims settled in the Song and Konrcher provinces. These Huis practised trade with Tibetans and a group of them settled in Tibet in the first century of the Hegira. But Muslim settlement in West Tibet only became a reality in the sixth century of the hegira when they arrived in Lhasa coming from Turkistan and Bilstan. Over the times, a Muslim community emerged in this town and by the 8th century of the hegira, it broke up into two groups. The first one was made up of Chinese Muslims, and the second one comprised other Asian (non-Chinese) Muslims such as the Kashmiri and the Nepalese. These were known in the Tibetan language as Khatchi, (Kashmiri Muslim), while the Chinese Huis were referred to as Gia khatchi, (non-Kashmiri Muslims). By 1998, they approximately numbered 2000(3).

In Lhasa there are two main mosques, the great mosque known as Bara mosque, and the smaller mosque referred to as Tchota mosque. Another place of worship is the Friday Mosque used mostly by Kashmiri who, every Friday, would walk a few kilometres from their houses to this mosque, located far from the city centre, perform the Friday prayer and partake of a meal together. This mosque is also known as Khatchi Gang Nma and serves as a gathering place and a  venue for hosting the religious and social festivities celebrated by the Kachmiris(4).

The Tibetans’ knowledge of Islam was the direct result of their interaction with traders hailing from China and India, and particularly from Kashmir, Ladkh, Bihar and Kalambtong. A great portion of them settled in Tibet and took Buddhist brides who converted to Islam. Thus Islam gradually spread among the Tibetans.(1)

Fourth : China and Contemporary Islamic Revival :

Over the past years, Islam in China has experienced a certain revival in the various aspects of Islamic education, mosque building, learning of the Arabic language, translation into Chinese and vice versa, and the appearance of the Hijab tradition in society.

1- Arabic language education :

Thanks to the efforts of scholars and teachers such as Mohamed Makin, Abdulrahmane Natchung, Ridwan Liun Ain Rui and others, the teaching of the Arabic language began in the forties of the twentieth century in Chinese schools and higher education institutes.

This branch of studies evolved in a noticeable way and the eagerness of Chinese students and young people to learn Arabic increased in such a way that the level of studies and degrees obtained reached the advanced stage of Masters degrees and Doctorates. By 1998, about thirty students obtained higher degrees. The Arabic Language Compound, created in China in October 1984, houses Arabic-speaking Chinese and caters for the needs in Arabic both at the learning as well as at the teaching stages. Activities dedicated to Arabic developed in Chinese cities and provinces and the Arabic Language Compound organised many seminars that benefited the Chinese youth, training sessions on teaching methods and on the use of modern scientific means in teaching. The compound also held symposia and conferences, organised in cooperation with Arab institutions and organisations, dedicated to the disciplines of rhetoric, Arabic culture, university education and curricula, Arabic calligraphy, Arabic literature, Arabic learning, translation, the methodology of teaching the Arabic language, and other scientific and cultural topics that fall within this realm(2).

2- Mosque Building :

Chinese towns house many mosques that Muslims built many centuries ago. The most renowned of these is the Yinugia, located in the Yinugia street, or cows’ street because it was inhabited by Muslims who ate cow’s meat instead of the widespread consumption of pork. Another well-known mosque is the Negtse mosque, built during the rule of the Ming family, and which contains a library, old manuscripts and a copy of the Qur’an that dates back to the year 718 A.H. The mosque premises also house the headquarters of the Islamic Association of Beijing and the Islamic Institute of Beijing. This city is also known for two other mosques, namely Ginxiada and Hurashi(1).

The Huashing Mosque (meaning in English Commemorating the Prophet PBUH) is one of the oldest mosques of China. It dates back to the first entry of Islam in this country and was built during the reign of the Tang dynasty. Located in Quangistchu, the mosque is a symbol of Islamic architectural art in China and boasts of a minaret, towers and walls engraved with Islamic inscriptions, a library, a hall for social festivities and a guesthouse. The mosque underwent several renovation operations of which the most important dates back to 1924 when the Canton Society for the Development of Islam in China undertook its restoration. The Society collected contributions from Muslims in this province and used the funds to restore this edifice which became after the rise of the Chinese Republic an Islamic centre for Muslim religious activities. The Religious Affairs Authority at the State's council and the government of Quangistchu donated large sums of money for the renovation and restoration of this mosque which was listed in 1997 as one of the major historical sites of China(2).

3- Teaching at Mosques :

Teaching in Chinese mosques was introduced in the 16th century/9th century hegira by the Hui Huding Tchu, known also as Mohammed Abdullah Ilias who started it in the interior parts of China early in the rule of the Ming family. Teaching in mosques developed at the same pace as the spread of Islam and the progress of education. The mosque was the most appropriate venue for Islamic instruction and responded to the needs of Muslims. The Imam of the mosque dispensed courses and lectures of which the main source and topic was the Holy Qur’an. Teachers were either Chinese or nationals of other Muslim countries(3).

Certain families specialised in the teaching field, and this activity became similar to that of Qur’anic schools. In addition to Arabic, the local languages used also loan terms. The system of mosque teaching had a written and spoken language medium and its essence was to confer national traits on Islamic education in China. Thus, strong ties were forged between the Islamic and the Chinese cultures. The Islamic mode of teaching spread in various parts of the countries and prevailed for many long years. Its role in spreading Islam and strengthening its foundations in China was undeniable(1).

Teaching in China’s mosques consisted of various lessons in rhetoric, logic, Tawheed, language, Hadith, Islamic philosophy, and the principles of the Arabic language, Arabic literature and the interpretation of the Holy Qur’an. The teaching process relied on books in Arabic, thus enhancing the school curricula and encouraging Chinese Muslims to study the Arabic language, Islamic culture and Islamic law sciences.

4- Arabic Translations :

The activity of translating the meanings of the Holy Qur’an into Chinese started under the modern times of the Ming and Ch’ing dynasties. Partial translations of some verses and Surahs of the Qur’an were first made with a view to interpreting them in articles and books. The study of the Qur’an was restricted to the interpretations made by the Imams while the Muslim public was limited to an imitation of the Imam in reciting the verses and Surahs of the Qur’an, without a proper understanding of the terms used and their meanings. Thus, strong need for the translation of the meanings of the Holy Qur’an into Chinese was felt, particularly after the Huis embraced Islam and gradually adopted Chinese.

Though Muslim scholars such as Wang Dai Yui and Matchu Liu Tchi felt this need towards the end of the Ming rule and the beginning of the Ch’ing Dynasty, their fear for not properly and fully rendering the meanings of the Qur’an made them adopt a cautious stance vis-à-vis this exercise.

When translation started in China, the aim behind it was to perform a function in the service of religious life and the popularisation of religious knowledge among all Muslims. In 1924, The Islamic Book and Press Publishers published the first edition of the “Translation and Interpretation of the Qur’an” by Ting Chiang. This was followed in 1941 by “The Precise Interpretation of the First Surah of the Holy Qur’an” written by Dawing and published by the Chinese Islamic Association in Hong Kong. The scholar Mada Wu’s translation of the Fatiha and of some verses from the Baqara Sura was printed several times in Hong Kong by the “Islamic Daawa Association” for Muslims to read in all of China(1).

The Khitma of the Qur’an, enjoying special rites among Chinese Muslims who call it Madkhyati or Khaiting, is a compilation of selected texts from the Qur’an in several editions. The compilation is widely read among Chinese Muslims because it contains selected chapters from the Qur’an as well as the translation of certain verses and Surahs selected according to the subjects of the Qur’an and which provide solutions to the daily problems faced by Muslims. Two types of such compilations were published: the “Indexed Translation of Excerpts from the Qur’an” written by Yang Pin San, Imam of the Beijing mosque, revised by Imam Tching Quang Yuan and published by the Islamic Association of Beijing in 1992. The compilation is divided into 105 chapters that address the main themes of the Holy Qur’an. The second compilation is the “Selected Teachings of the Holy Qur’an”, written by Liu Fi Mao, Najin Wun, Lin Tao, Danh Ying Lee, and published in 1993 by Dar Al Qawmiyyat Linnachr. This work is divided up into two main parts: Religious Life, and Worldly Life(2).

Among the other translations made, we may cite the “Daily Study of the Holy Qur’an”, by  Qa Waharan published in 1987 by the Centre for Qur’anic Studies. This daily reading of the Qur’an is divided up into parts that match the lunar calendar days in such a way that Muslims can read a portion every day. The book contains the Arabic translation in addition to the Chinese text. A full translation of the meanings of the Holy Qur’an was only completed in 1927 by a generation of pioneers such as the Muslim Scholar Mafu Tchu who translated the ‘Ashsharhu Saheeh lil Kitab Al Muqaddasi Annafeess” and handed it over to his disciple Su Khateb who transcribed it in order to perform the hajj. He in turn handed the transcribed copy to the Islamic Chinese Association which published it after adding a preface in the name of the Association and an introduction written by Tchu in the same year. However, this first translation of the meanings of the Holy Qur’an was lost. Another complete translation of the meanings of the Holy Qur’an into old Chinese was carried out under the supervision of Han Tching Wutu Quang and Chatchan Yui in cooperation with Mohamed Makin. It was published by the Islamic Academic Association in three volumes, but, its publication ceased thereafter(3).

Ji Giuh translated the “Meanings of the Holy Qur’an” into Chinese while Lee Pui Tchen and Yang Tchong Ming made an introductory translation of the meanings of the Qur’an, and Qao Ching did a partial translation of the Qur’an. All of these works were part of an attempt to achieve a full translation of the Qur’an. One manuscript that has not yet been published is the translation of the “The Holy Qur’an in Chinese Mosque Dialect” by Lee Tong Tching. This translation was recorded by the students of the Xingda Teachers’School. It is a valuable translation that has yet to find its way to publication(1).

Between 1937 and 1990, twelve complete translations of the meanings of the Holy Qur’an have officially been published. These include the works of many Chinese Muslim scholars such as Tee Tichfug and Ji Giwu Mi, Wang Ging Xhia, Liu Gin Piao, Sang Ming, Chee Tse Shu, Mohammed Makin, Ling Sung, Tong Dao, Tchongching Chee and others.

Translation of works other than the Qur’an included the rendering in Chinese of the Burda poem by Charaf Eddine Mohammed Al Busiri, considered the first Arab work to have been translated into Chinese. The translation was done in 1896 by the young Muslim researcher Mafu Tchuf and was published under the title “Islamic Poetry” or “Islamic Songs”(2).

With the openness and reform that China witnessed in the eighties and nineties, culture has generally spread in the country. A strong desire sprang among Chinese youth to learn Arabic and study Islamic culture and the literary, intellectual and historical masterpieces of Muslims and Arabs. The movement of translation from Arabic into Chinese speeded up in scientific and academic institutes and universities in the various cities and provinces of China(3).

5-  Features of Islamic Culture :

In spite of successive ruling regimes and dynasties in the history of China and their diverse stances vis-à-vis Muslims and Islam, Islamic culture, of which the roots reach far and deep in the history of Islam to the Prophet’s days and which is founded on sturdy Islamic ideals and beliefs, has preserved its authentic and original features and specifities without clashing with the Chinese culture. Indeed, the essence of the Islamic culture being the worship of God, it has served to preserve a comprehensive outlook on life and on the ways of dealing with the other, even if religious differences divided up the two.

The expansion of Islam in many parts of China led to the formation of distinguished cultures such as the Chixgiang culture of the Huis and the Uygurs. This culture differs from all other cultures being strongly attached to history, tradition and customs. Though it is a distinctive national culture with regional and provincial features, it rather thrives on interaction with Islamic culture, without negating the old culture, adding to the ancient Chinese traditions a new aspect derived from the spirit of Islam, its tolerance and its characteristics. Remaining alive as long as it did, not clashing with the Islamic culture, Chinese Islamic culture enjoys a certain distinction being a mixture of the (universal) Islamic culture and the (local) Chinese one, a process whereby the two cultures absorbed each other to give birth to one culture that may seem complicated, but is deeply-rooted and well-seated in Chinese reality, be it in the acts of worship, or in the Islamic rites and philosophical ideals which, through the works and books written on this specific aspect, have become a reference for researchers in the field of Islamic Chinese philosophy.

With ten million people, all of them are Muslims, the Hui ethnic group is today the largest Islamic community in China.  The Huis live in various cities and provinces of the country such as Ningxian, Chingiang, Shanghai, Yunnan, Khunath, Jini, Chandong, and  Anwei. They are even present in other cities in Southeast Asia(1).

In the Ningxia province, Muslims represent a large majority through the Huis, third ethnic group in China after the Tchwang and the Han in addition to the Muslim Uygur community. Therefore, Ningxia is rich in displays of Islamic civilization such as minarets and mosques, Arabic names for shops, Qur’anic inscriptions on houses and shops in addition to the widespread chador tradition among women. The towns boast six thousand minarets, three thousand mosques as well as 10% of China’s Muslims who, according to the 1998 census, represent about twenty million of the 1.3 billion population of China. Islam reached Ningxia through its northwest regions in the times of the Tang family. The first Muslim envoy was sent by Caliph Othmane Ibn Affane (May Allah be pleased with him) in a first attempt to spread the word of God. Contacts between Muslims and Chinese continued and Islam gradually found its way to these lands. There appeared Arab and Muslim communities that were made up of various ethnic groups that had embraced Islam such as the Kazaks, the Kyrghis, the Tadjiks, the Tatars, the Uzbeks, the Huis, the Uygurs, the Sala  and the Pawan. Ningxia houses many mosques such as the great Tangwan Mosque, Islamic libraries, restaurants and shops. The current Imam of this great mosque  built under the Ming rule, three centuries ago, is Mohamed Yunus Yajuin Qawi(1).

In Tutgxing, there are nineteen mosques that present a marvellous Islamic architectural style. In this town, young people study the Shariah laws and the Arabic language in order to understand the Shariah and the exegesis of the holy Qur’an, the Prophet’s biography and hadiths and Islamic history(2).

Chinese Muslim ethnic groups, benefiting from the policy of openness adopted by the country, became more active in the support of all aspects of Islamic culture. The numbers of mosques increased. They reach in Jiangxi alone nine mosques of which five were only built in the last five years to cater for the rising needs of Muslims in terms of places of worship. The Imams of these mosques perform services for the community during religious festivities, the celebrations of Aid Al Adha and Aid Al Fitr, the commemoration of the birth of the prophet (Mawlid Annabii) and other social functions of Muslims. The keen interest of young Huis, particularly in the field of rituals, celebrations of famous Muslim figures and preservation of the heritage of their ancestors is only equalled by their attachment to learning and interpreting of the Qur’an, studying Arabic and other Islamic sciences and memorising the whole Qur’an and the prophet’s Hadiths.(3)

6-  Islamic Academic Efforts :

Several academic undertakings have been conducted within the framework of the scientific and academic efforts exerted by experts and persons with interest in the Islamic world, Islam, the Arab civilization and the Arabic language and literature. These aimed at consolidating the knowledge of the Chinese of the Arab and Islamic cultures, increasing the availability of information about the Islamic world, the history of the emergence of Islam and its spread throughout the world. They have resulted in the creation, in 1981, of the Faculty of Arabic Language at the University of Foreign Studies in Beijing after it was only a department within the university since 1958. The new faculty’s fields of interests include the Arabic language, calligraphy, Arabic essay writing, speech and all information about the Islamic world and architecture. This interest was also reflected in student exchange operations with Arab countries, the exchange of delegations, and the holding of seminars and scientific symposia on various aspects of the Arab and Islamic civilization. The faculty is made up of Arab and Muslim lecturers who teach basic and advanced subjects and was able to produce scientific textbooks and curricula and to translate Arab and Islamic works on history, civilization, Islamic thought and Arab literature. This faculty maintains relations with many Arab institutions and Islamic universities(1).

The “Asian Centre for Arab and Islamic Studies” was set up in 1987 as a joint cooperation project between the Arab Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organisation (ALECSO) and the University of Foreign Studies in Beijing. The goal of the centre is to build a solid base in Asia for the learning of the Arabic language and Islamic culture, develop cultural and scientific links between Arabs and Chinese, and train Chinese students in Arab universities. Among its other objectives is to conduct research projects and Islamic studies, organise around the year training sessions for Chinese and Asians, and train teachers and specialists in the Arabic language. The Centre also aims at preparing researchers in the fields of Arabic and Islamic literature and civilization in cooperation with Arab universities and institutes, and organising scientific symposia for the teaching of the Arabic language and literature. In this respect, an Arab-Chinese symposium was organised in Khartoum in 1988, as well as the 1991 First scientific conference on the Arabic Language Outside the Arab World, held in Beijing(2), the Arab-Chinese cultural weeks, and the symposium organised in Beijing towards the end of 1999 around the theme of “Arab-Chinese Ties in the 21st Century”. This symposium was organised in coordination with the Arab League and with the participation of an elect group of intellectuals, specialised Chinese and Arab university lecturers who addressed the best means of developing political, economic and cultural ties between Arabs and China in the new millennium.(3)

In this same trend, several Chinese-Islamic research and study projects benefited from support. Thus, the Centre of Arab and Islamic Studies was created in the University of Foreign Studies in Beijing with the support of the United Arab Emirates. Furthermore, dictionaries were made available to the Islamic Chinese Association and a student dormitory was built in the Institute for Islamic Studies in Urumxi, in the province of Xinjiang(4).

Fifth : Muslims of China and Future Prospects :

United under the banner of Islam, the Islamic world has achieved a geographical complementarity that encompassed peoples of diverse beliefs and races. Islam achieved the co-existence of cultures and civilizations and the economic, social and cultural centres. All of these formed a world that the strong mutual ties, the feeling of common interests and ideals brought together under the umbrella of a creed that shared the same religious culture, and to a certain extent, the same general culture.

Islamic civilization sought to develop the spiritual aspect of man and reinforce values and morals through a dialogue that helped create a melting pot of civilizations. Asian peoples benefited from this aspect through the Hajj and trade. Indeed,  economic activity was carried out with a sentiment of religious bond. Thus, came to be implemented the ideal that Allah set for men’s origins when He said “It is He Who Created thee from one soul”(1), and the oneness of God became the base of human unity under the banner of Islam.(2)

By placing all Muslims under the guidance of the Holy verse: “And hold fast, all together, by the rope which God (stretches out for you), and be not divided among yourselves”(3), Allah presented man with the greatest inspiration in terms of the noble principles that embody unity, solidarity and the shirking of all conflicts. Emphasis was put on openness; dialogue and generosity for the sake of building a sound edifice, overcoming all obstacles and following a policy of lofty Islamic values.

Today, Islam in China is based on a profound understanding of these noble meanings. Free from all extremism and fanaticism, it evolves around a correct understanding of the faith, and an attachment to origins, while being at the same time in harmony with modern times, especially that Islam in China evolved within a society that is mostly non-Muslim. It remains open to dialogue, and promotes contact with the outside world (Islamic world). The fact that Islam in Tibet, for example, exists within a different society, does not prevent Muslims from standing as a unified entity that enjoys specific and distinctive features within the Tibetan society. This was achieved thanks to their attachment to Islam in the face of any attempt to erode their religious and intellectual strength, a stance that is perfectly understandable in consideration of the nature itself of Islam, with its precepts of tolerance, a universal intellectual message that interacts with the mind, absorbs change and serves interests wherever the divine path is laid out. Islam, indeed, thrives where freedom, understanding and the language of dialogue and logic prevail.

The challenges and dangers that confront the Arab and Islamic Ummah from the West, especially with the emergence of such concepts as the clash of civilizations and the end of history peddled by some western thinkers call for a total mobilization in the Islamic world, from Morocco to China, for the achievement of the language of civilizational dialogue, rational thinking and openness onto the other while remaining attached to the foundations and principles of Islam. It is also necessary for the Islamic world to create a new state of communion and civilizational revival that does not negate the glorious past of the Islamic ummah and, being founded on the strength of logic and faith, is in harmony with the present.

It thus becomes necessary to stress the importance of laying the bridges of dialogue and intellectual harmony among Arabs and Muslims in the Islamic world through the organisation of student exchange, the supply of Islamic books and participation in organised Islamic activities, conferences and symposia, such as the language competitions organised for example in China and which have as a main theme the language of the Qur’an.

Arab countries could also play a leading part in this field through the dispatching of teachers, the teaching of Arabic, the exegesis of the Qur’an, the building of mosques and the support of Islamic charity associations. These countries could also enhance the correct understanding of Islam, create an Islamic solidarity fund with southeast Asian countries and China for example, foster the values of Islamic culture, and bridge the gap separating Arab countries from the remote lands of Asia(1).

It would also be possible to organise campaigns for the support of the Arab and Islamic book in Islamic schools, institutes and faculties that address Arab culture in their curricula. This could be achieved by making available major reference books and works in tafseer, hadith, the Arabic language and Islamic history, by shedding light on the truth of Arab and Islamic culture, and by providing the funds necessary for promoting the publication of Arabic and Islamic books in China.

The Organisation of the Islamic Conference which shoulders the responsibility of serving the interests of Islamic action in the Muslim world, reinforcing the spirit of cooperation and solidarity among Muslims in east and west, and building a better world where the values of justice, tolerance and progress for all humanity prevail, is in a position to provide the media and information support necessary for harnessing interest in the Islamic civilizational and cultural heritage. This interest also concerns the position of Islam and Muslims in the past, present and future in the face of western challenges and the preservation of the Islamic identity. The Organisation is also in a position to draw attention to the reality of Muslims and Islam in China, support them through cultural and information assistance, and enhance their awareness about the genuine bonds of Islam that unify all Muslim peoples in a tangible, dynamic and realistic manner.

Islamic heritage has come to be perceived as a rich civilizational heritage that can be assimilated by all peoples of the world considering its wealth of Islamic architecture and arts. There is still a pressing need for caring for the civilizational sites that testify to the position of Islam in Asia in general, and in China in particular, and for preserving the Islamic heritage in these lands which have for many centuries served as a source of inspiration and that new generations need to maintain and preserve in order for it to remain eternal and a symbol of the greatness and loftiness of the blessed mohammedan message.

It would be highly beneficial if cooperation and coordination could be achieved with Chinese Islamic institutions such as the Faculty of Arabic Language in Beijing, the Centre for Islamic Studies in Shanghai, and the Asian Centre for Arab and Islamic Studies in Beijing.  This cooperation could cover the holding of joint symposia, the organisation of visits of experts and lecturers from Arab and Islamic universities, student exchange, the admission of student groups within Arab and Islamic universities to obtain certificates and university degrees, and the conclusion of bilateral agreements in scientific and cultural fields. These would serve to develop scientific action in these institutions which may suffer from intellectual and academic isolation from Arab countries and the Islamic world, China being removed by the nature of its geographical location and huge size from the centre of holy inspiration and the cradle of the message of Islam. The sheer size of the country may make the efforts of these institutions seem scattered and inadequate.

Islamic Chinese institutions can cooperate with Daawa and Islamic studies centres in the publication of Islamic magazines, books and periodicals, and make these available for Muslims in China. They can also cooperate through supporting articles and Islamic studies carried out by Arab and Muslim thinkers in general in a bid to strengthen their value and authenticate their scientific and intellectual contents.

In the field of Arabic language teaching, an essential component in understanding the Qur’an, Chinese Islamic institutions could cooperate with the Arabic language and science academies and institutions that have decades-old and prestigious past such as the Arabic Language Academies in Cairo, Damascus, Baghdad, and Amman. These institutions can benefit Chinese by fostering the Islamic spirit of understanding, dialogue and assimilation so that Chinese could understand and study the Arabic language as a first step towards a correct and deep understanding of the Holy Qur’an, the prophet’s biography and the Hadiths, these being the full combination necessary for understanding and conveying the message of Islam.

Islamic institutes and universities in Arab countries for example can receive Chinese lecturers, mosque imams and preachers for visits of the Islamic religious and scientific centres and institutions and who can then consolidate intellectual and scientific ties, acquire a first-hand knowledge of the history of Islam and peruse various manuscripts. They can also visit publishing houses, Islamic centres and schools specialised in the training of imams and preachers, and in general create a strong bond with these through the conclusion of bilateral agreements to receive Chinese Muslims.

The present study is no more than a humble preliminary step taken towards the granting of further importance to studies about China, the Asian continent’s geographical and economic beating heart. These studies would serve to uncover aspects of Muslims’ heritage that have remained hidden, revive and energize Islam and the Islamic action through the efforts of Muslim thinkers who closely follow the development of Islam and its dissemination in Asia, and in the Islamic world at large.

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(1)   Tariq Fathi Sultan, “Arabs and China in the Middle Ages: A Political and Civilizational Study” 769 a.h./622-1628 a.d., unpublished Masters research project. Faculty of Arts, Al Maousil, 1980, pp. 218-241.

(1) Mohammed Rasheed Al Feel, “Trade Relations Between Iraq and China in the Middle Ages” The Iraqi Geographic Society Magazine, Vol. 2, June 1964, pp. 30-31.

(2) Zaki Mohamed Hassan, “China and the Arts of Islam”, Arraid Al Arabi Linnashr, Beirut, 1981, pp. 8-9.

The Chinese believe that the first Muslim to have arrived in their lands was Saad Bnu Abi Waqqas who was deputed to invite them to convert to Islam (1-7 A.H./622-628 A.D.) during the reign of the Tang dynasty. He built the first mosque known as Huanching, meaning the Commemoration of the Prophet. Bnu Abi Waqqas passed away in 629 A.D. and was buried somewhere on the northern Liberation road in Quangzhou. The veracity of this report, however, is doubtful since Saad died many years later. But the mausoleum, burial place of Bnu Abi Waqqas, is considered by Chinese Muslims as their own mecca and was restored several times in 1815, 1849, 1934, 1964, 1977 and 1985.  On the 27th of Dul Qi’da of every year, Chinese Muslims celebrate the memory of Saad Bnu Abi Waqqas by organising Qur’an reading and prayer sessions. Cf. Abdullah Mohammed Wanh Win Gia “Abu Waqqas and His Mausoleum in China”, Islam Today Magazine, No. 10, October 1999, pp. 55-56.

(1) Badr Eddine Hay Assini, “Relations between Arabs and China”, Annahda Al Misriyya Publishers, Cairo, 1950, pp. 144-145.

M. Broomhall, “Mohammedan Population of China”, Moslim World, Vol. 1, 1911, pp. 32-34.

(2)   Sabah Ibrahim Shikhali and Adim Mahi Al Alusi, “The Spread of Islam in Africa  and Southeast Asia”, Bgahdad University Press, 1987, pp. 218-231.

(1) Ali Addabagh, "Muslims in China", Culture and Heritage Horizons magazine, year 5, No. 18, Dubai. August 1997, p. 105.

(2) Ibid., p. 105.

(3) Nuri Abdelhamid Khaeel, "Muslims in China in the Second Half of the 19th Century”. Study of History and Archaeology magazine, No. 7, Baghdad, 1990, pp. 14-15.

(4) Cf. Sulaiman Tajir Assirafi, “The Travels of Assirafi in India, China and Indonesia”. Ali Al Basri Publications, Baghdad, 1961. Suleiman Hazin, “Islam and Muslims in China”, Arab Society Magazine, No. 18, Cairo, 1946. Faical Assamir, “Arab Embassies to China in the Middle Ages”, the Mustansiriyya University Magazine, No. 2, Baghdad, 1971. Mohammed Mahmud Zaitun, “China and Arabs”, Iqraa Series, issue No. 253, Cairo. Fahmi Huwaidi, “Islam in China”, ’Alam Al Maarifa’ series, issue No. 43, Kuwait, 1981, pp. 48-106.

(1) Fahmi Huwaidi, Ibid., pp. 48-106.

(2) Sulaiman Tajir Assirafi, ibid., p. 24.

(3) Tariq Fathi Sultan, ibid., p. 247.

(1) Tariq Fathi Sultan, ibid., pp. 249-250.

(2) Fareeda Wang Fu,  ”Four Waves of Islamic Culture in the History of China”, China Today magazine, issue 12, December 1998, pp. 41-42.

(1) Fareeda Wang Fu, ibid., pp. 41-42.

(2) Fareeda Wang Fu, ibid., pp. 41-42.

(3)   Fareeda Wang Fu, “Four Waves of Islamic Culture in the History of China”, China Today Magazine, issue No. 12, January 1999,  pp. 45-47.

(1) Ibid., pp. 45-47.

(2) Ibid., pp. 45-46.

(4)   Ibid., pp. 45-47.

(1) Ibid., p. 47.

(2) Ibid., p. 47.

(3) Ibid., p. 47.

1) Ibid., p. 47.

(2) Ali Eddabagh, Ibid., p. 108.

cf. details in Dik Wilson (ed): “Maotse Tung in the Scales of History”, Cambridge University Press.

(3) Jose Ignacio Cabezon: “Islam on Top of the World”, Caravan Magazine, issue No. 9, volume 48, December-January 1999-2000, pp. 25-27.

(5)   Ibid., pp. 27-29.

(1) Ibid., p. 129.

(2) Yang Yat Hong, " Learning Arabic in China ", Islam Today Magazine, issue No. 8, August 1998, pp. 19-20.

(1) Ali Eddabagh, ibid., pp. 108-109.

(2) Farida Wang Fu, "The Scholar Huang Tchu and Mosque Teaching in Chine ", Islam Today Magazine, issue No. 6, June 1998, p. 31.

(1)   Ibid., pp. 13-32.

(1) Ibid., p. 32.

(1) Farida Wang Fu, “Translation of the Meanings of the Holy Qur’an”, Islam Today Magazine, issue No. 3, March 1999, p. 42.

(2) Ibid., p. 42.

(36) Ibid., pp. 42-43.

(1) Ibid., p. 43.

(2) Ibid., p. 43.

(3) Liang Ya Ching, " Arabic Translation and Research Works in China ", Islam Today, issue No. 5, May 1998, pp. 28-30.

(1) Husayn Ismael, "The Veil and the Minaret in the Heart of china ", Islam Today magazine, issue No. 9, September 1998, pp. 16-17.

(1) Ibid., pp. 16-17.

(2) Ibid., pp. 17-21.

(2)   Ching Ping, “The Hui in Ramadan”, Islam Today Magazine, issue No. 1, January 1997, pp. 28-29.

(1) "An Interview of Yun Chang, Dean of the Arabic Language Faculty at the University of Foreign Studies ", Islam Today Magazine, issue No. 5, May 1990, pp. 16-18.

(2) Ibid., pp. 16-18-57.

(3) Islam Today, issue No 12, December 1999, pp. 42-45.

(3)   Islam Today, issue No 1, January 1997, pp. 30-31.

(1) Al Anaam, verse 39.

(2) Nizar Al Hadithi, “The Formation and Features of the Islamic World”, The World of Islam, Proceedings of the 1998-1999 two Cultural Seasons of the Directorate of Arab Islamic Heritage, the Iraqi Scientific Compound, pp. 19-20

(3) Al Imrane, verse 103.

(1) Fahmi Huwaidi, ibid., pp. 246-250.