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Civilisations: Dialogue or
Clash? An Islamic Perspective
By Dr. Ahmed Arafat Al-Qadi
Though conflict has been, throughout history the
predominant feature in the relationship among civilisations, opposing in
particular modern Western civilization to the Islamic one, this state of affairs
has remained within the realm of the unspoken, absent from all debates and
dialogue. Such was the situation until 1993 when Samuel Huntington committed his
views on the matter to paper in a study he published for the first time in the
periodical "Foreign Affairs". The article, titled "The Conflict of Civilizations?"
was later on integrated in a book, published in 1996, where Huntington presented
a deeper and more elaborate version of his views and which he called "The Clash
of Civilizations and the Remaking of the World"(*).
Since then, the intensity of debate and discussion
of the issue has never slackened, monopolising a large share of the efforts of
Muslim and Arab thinkers and researchers who expressed their disenchantment with
these voices that pretend to speak in the name of modern European civilization.
These researchers went so far as to say that Huntington embodied nothing more
than a limited Western movement. Western political leadership, realising the
dangers that Huntington's stated views carried for Western interests, sought to
reassure all those concerned about the issue. Thus, American President Bill
Clinton announced that dialogue, and not conflict, was the essence in the
relationship of civilizations.
Before we present our personal view of this
matter, a number of relevant points must be addressed:
- Modern western civilization only took shape
through its many century-long bloody conflict with Islam. This civilization
relied to a major extent on Islamic sciences in building its renaissance and
revival, a truth that is known to all and everyone and recorded by history.
Furthermore, it may not be an exaggeration if I say that Europe only became a
nation as a result of this long and bitter conflict with Islam, a conflict that
saw its own consecration in the longest war ever known in history, the Crusades.
- Huntington, as a strategic analyst -and not as a
thinker, draws the attention to the possible dangers that Islam may represent in
the future to the Western nation. By doing so, he reiterates the political
western conviction, previously affirmed by former US President Richard Nixon in
his book "Seize the Moment", published during the Gulf War while Iraq was being
destroyed. Such writings only serve to confirm that Western policy puts to
practice Huntington's views while maintaining a discourse to the opposite, hence
Clinton's words confirming that dialogue, and not conflict, was the essence of
the relationship between civilizations.
- In terms of political and ideological practice,
the trend prevailing in the Islamic and Arab world is towards acting by reaction
and not through initiative and creativity. At the intellectual level, for
example, and before Huntington's article was published, Arab intellectual
circles concerned themselves with an article written by the American thinker of
Japanese descent Fukoyama on "The End of History and the Perfect Man" where he
affirms that Western capitalism, particularly after the collapse of communism,
represented the pinnacle of human development. At the political level,
especially with regard to the cause of Palestine and the conflict in the Middle
East, we tend to place all matters and decision-making in the hands of the
Zionist machinery, and stand by eagerly awaiting the results of the Israeli
elections: should it be a labour government that proclaims its desire for peace,
even if in reality it carries out the opposite, we would scramble after it from
Madrid to Washington making concession after concession. If it turns out to be
an extremist Likudian government, then we would fall over each other deploring
this fate and crying over spilt milk.
- Though conflict is dominant, its partisans are
numerous, and their voices are heard loud, we still believe that dialogue is
important and necessary in the light of the critical situation experienced in
the Islamic and Arab world, the mishaps and internal conflicts that tear it
apart at the regional level, and the external difficulties it has to face in
terms of coordination and political relations.
While studies abound and debates have raged about
this sensitive issue for a long time now, with opposition experienced at all
levels, the Islamic perspective on the matter did not benefit from the interest
it deserves among thinkers and researchers. This study is, therefore, an attempt
at presenting the unique and distinguished view of Islam on dialogue among
civilizations.
The perception that we will endeavour to expound
revolves around the following points:
- Highlighting the truth of civilisational
conflict and its historical background. Any constructive dialogue must build on
clarity, frankness and good understanding of the root causes that led to
conflict in order to avoid their emergence in the future.
- Understanding the nature of the current
juncture. Has conflict really ended or did it merely take on another face where
the West seeks to embellish its image without letting go of its old prejudices
on Islam and its presumption of the threat it presents to Western societies?
- Shedding light on Islam's view of
inter-civilisational dialogue, a view that is concordant with the nature of this
universal religion as the ultimate and final revelation to humanity, and not as
a regional creed of import only to a certain nation or limited to a specific
environment.
- Identifying the obstacles hampering fulfilment
by dialogue of its objective, and the ways and means of overcoming them.
These axes represent the general framework within
which this study evolves.
First: Nature and Background of the Conflict :
Historical events point to the fact that the
relationship between Islamic civilization, evolving for a long time within a
context of stagnation and eclipse, and the western civilization ; carrying since
the seventeenth century the banner of might and power, clearly reflects the
prevalence of the language and tone of conflict in the interactions of the two
civilizations. This dates back as early as the birth of Islam and its expansion
outside the Arab peninsula to spread the universal message of the new religion,
far and wide to all mankind on the four corners of the globe.
In fact, the relationship of the new religion with
Christianity, in particular, was excellent at first. This is clearly reflected
in the response made by Christian kings and princes to the messages and letters
sent out to them by the Prophet (PBUH) inviting them to embrace the new
religion. Indeed, the King of Ethiopia converted to Islam and gave asylum to the
persecuted Muslim Muhajireen who had fled Mecca. The King of Egypt responded to
a letter of the prophet (PBUH) with a gift that was accompanied by Maria the
Copt whom the Prophet (PBUH) married later on. The Roman king failed to embrace
Islam only out of fear of his people and court. An exception to this positive
reaction was that of the Persian king, Kissra who tore up the message of the
Prophet and thus deserved the Prophet's curse, praying Allah to tear up his
kingdom. He was assassinated at the hands of his own son, Anusherwan, who thus
usurped his father's place at the throne of Persia"(1).
But, as a result of internal European conflicts
and political and economic crises in the 11th Century, and true to their
tradition of exporting problems and conflicts abroad to get rid of them, the
popes and bishops sparked the fires of war against Islam in a holy war that was
supposed to be an expression of the will of God, as stated by Pope Urban II. A
direct consequence of this was the hostility of the West towards Islam and the
opposition of the two forces in the longest war ever endured by humanity, the
Crusades. During these campaigns, popes aroused the zeal of soldiers by inciting
them to engage in holy war in order to cleanse the cradle of the Christ and
liberate it from the hands of the infidel Muslims.
At the Clermont congress during which that first
call for the Crusades was made, Pope Urban II said: "The city of the king of all
kings, the city that has bestowed on all the joys of true faith has fallen to
the ignominy of the heretics. The glorious Resurrection Church, the sepulchre of
our lord the Christ has been defiled with the filth of a damned race that shall
have no place in heaven but shall wallow forever in hell, feeding the flames of
a fire that never goes out"(2).
It is clear that Urban II had carefully prepared
this long-winded sermon, putting to use all his rhetorical skills and his
eloquence to inflame the masses, a task at which he greatly succeeded.
As for the motto of this war, "It is the Will of
God", it was inspired from the Pope's sermon where the phrase was repeatedly
uttered and where he also said: "Go that God may be with you, and let those of
you who have been accustomed unjustly to wage private warfare against the
faithful turn their swords against the infidels and the enemies of the
Christ".(1)
It is evident from these words that, at that time,
deep and violent internal conflicts raged among western countries, conflicts
that involved the sharpening of weapons that Pope Urban II sought to divert and
plunge in the hearts of the infidel Muslims who, according to him, could aspire
to no abode in the heavens.
In the sermon which ignited the fires of anger in
the hearts of the Christian masses, Muslims were described in the most
derogatory terms and to them were ascribed the worst traits, such as the enemies
of the Christ, the heretics, the inhabitants of hell, as well as the repeatedly
used term of pagans: "Therefore, we enjoin you and advice you in the name of God
to strive to cleanse your souls from sins by sharing with our brothers, the
inhabitants of Jerusalem, their suffering and their tragedy...be their partners
in the legacy of the heavens, and curb, with religious zeal, the effrontery of
the infidels who are trying to force into submission kingdoms and states. Fight
with all your might those who have resolved to obliterate the name of the
Christ, for should you fail in doing so, the church of God, for no crime that it
would have committed shall swiftly lose its faith, and supremacy shall be in the
hands of the ignorant pagans".(2)
During the Crusade Wars, and as a result of the
West's need for the knowledge and sciences of Islam, an orientalist movement
emerged with the purpose of translating and transferring Muslims' sciences to
the West to serve in building its own renaissance. The movement's other priority
was to disfigure the image of this religion and of its prophet in the eyes of
the Western individual and erect a wall to prevent Islam from reaching him,
attributing to Islam the worst crimes, a drive that even modern orientalists
criticised for its bias and unfairness.(3)
After the defeat of the West at the Crusade Wars
and the return of the Christians to their lands weighed on by shame and defeat,
European travellers, thinkers, and consuls remained behind in the lands of Islam
to observe and report to the kings and princes of Europe on conditions and
developments in these lands, slyly waiting for the opportunity to pounce back on
these countries. This is clearly reflected in the correspondence sent by the
German philosopher Leibnitz to the French monarchy while he served in the
diplomatic corps in France and in which he persisted until the then reigning
king gave in to his requests and organised a campaign to Egypt led by Napoleon
Bonaparte, a campaign that heralded the beginning of Western colonialism in the
Islamic world.(1)
Once again Europe revisited the lands of Islam,
destroying, killing and pillaging the wealth of Muslim peoples and nations in an
unprecedented spree. This led a prominent philosopher of the time to strongly
condemn these actions and describe western colonialism in Islamic countries as
an act of insolence, especially with regard to the pretexts used to justify the
occupation of Islamic countries. Of such pretexts is the theory put forward by
Jules Verne when he said: "Our country must ready itself to do as all countries
do. Since the policy of colonial expansion seems to be the general motivation of
all countries in Europe, then we must also give it its fair share".
Commenting such views that truly reveal the hidden
motives of Europeans, Garaudy says: "These are the words of the builders of the
empire. But at least they had the decency of not using the pretext of loving
humanity, the pretence of spreading civilisation, or preaching a religion or
their own codes of morality, thus plainly and insolently unmasking the true
motives of colonialism".(2)
This insolence on the part of the West took its
worst shape in the snatching of black Africans and trading in them after a long
sea journey that took them across the seas to North America where they worked as
slaves and fed what came to be known as the slave trade. This trade has claimed
more than 100 million individuals who perished while this tragedy lasted and
most of whom were Muslims. Garaudy describes this colonial activity saying: "It
is sometimes claimed that slavery was no more than the transfer of a few million
people to America, deliberately omitting to say that for each prisoner who
remained alive ten others died. If we estimate the number of relocated slaves at
ten million -the lowest estimation-, this would mean the death of more than 100
million persons. The world has never witnessed genocide of such proportions that
it cannot even be compared to the massacres perpetrated by Genghis Khan and
during which he built pyramids using thousands of human skulls. His deeds seem
like those of a menial worker compared to the historical iniquity committed by
the West".(3)
This tragedy was aptly depicted by the English
artist Turner in a painting he called the "Slave Trader" and which showed slaves
being thrown overboard -having probably perished from some epidemic on the ship-
while sharks waited in the waters to devour them. It is a true symbol of the
ignominy of the capitalist west.(1)
Western colonisation resorted to every trick and
took various shapes in its quest to achieve its dark purposes. Did not Bonaparte
go so far as to pretend a conversion to Islam. As he crossed the sea towards
Egypt, he sent the Egyptian people a letter he signed using the name “Abdullah
Bonaparte”, describing himself as the Muslim envoy of the French Muslims
community to free the Egyptians from the fetters of the tyrannical Mamluks...!
Yet, and in spite of the thousands of young
Egyptians whom Bonaparte persecuted in the streets of Cairo, and in spite of the
desecration of the hall of Al Azhar by his horses who tramped and wreaked havoc
in this sacred place, we still find among the westernised secular movement
people claiming that it was only thanks to the campaign of Bonaparte that the
Egyptians attained civilization and were freed from the shackles of the Middle
Ages.(2)
Such were the beginnings of modern western
colonisation through which the West pilfered the wealth of the Muslim world and
sought to tear apart its unity by means of sowing the poison of the Zionist
entity amidst Muslims once they realised that the hour of departure had tolled
and that their reign over those lands was soon to come to an end, for strong was
the determination of the Ummah to struggle against a western crusading invasion
that hid its religious crusading purposes behind political, economic and
scientific justifications.(3)
Second: Globalisation and the contemporary
Conflict :
The latest shape taken by western crusading
colonialism is more attractive and appealing, a shape in harmony with current
trends and modern times, namely globalisation. This shining, elegant term, in
fact, reflects nothing but the West's chameleon capacity to change and acquire
different shapes at different stages and as dictated by its own interests and
needs. Through globalisation, the West, particularly America which has been
controlling international politics for a while now, seeks to pillage our wealth
and distort our cultural and religious identity, imposing its willpower on us
and turning the Islamic world into an outlet for its products. The term
"globalisation" carries the meaning of a condition more than that of a concept
as can be inferred from the mystery that surrounds it and prevents the finding
of an accurate and clear-cut definition for it.
This new form of colonialism aims at removing
barriers and borders between nations and peoples. It carries within it a threat
to the values, concepts and cultures that distinguish one people from another
and one civilization from its neighbour. It also strives to impose rules and
laws to regulate market and economic transactions between countries in such a
way that the small country becomes an easy prey for the larger one and falls
under its mercy. This purpose was quickly perceived by Europe -the other half of
the West- which instantly dismissed all previous internal conflicts and
differences to present a unified front against the new economic invasion
arriving from beyond the Atlantic.(1)
This outlook was also confirmed by Huntington when
he spoke about the supremacy of the West in its relationship with other
civilizations, particularly after the collapse of opposing superpowers. It is
therefore impossible to conceive of an internal military conflict among Western
countries given the fact that they, all, enjoy a distinguished military
position. Furthermore, and apart from Japan, the West faces no economic
challenges. It controls all political and security institutions and, together
with Japan, takes control over international economic institutions.
World political and security issues are only
efficiently settled through the military will of America, Great Britain and
France, while world economic issues are addressed exclusively by America,
Germany and Japan, all of which keep close ties with each other, keeping all
small countries, obviously not Western ones on the margin.(2)
Decisions taken at the levels of the Security
Council and the International Monetary Fund, institutions that serve none but
the interests of the West, are presented as being a reflection of the will of
the international community. The term of "international community" has become an
equivalent of the free world to confer a universal legitimacy onto the practices
that reflect the interests of the United States of America and other western
powers.(3)
The views held by Huntington and other western
theoreticians leave no choice for us but to look askance at the foreign
institutions operating in the Islamic and Arab world, preaching the respect of
human rights and democracy, for these are basically western concepts of which
the purpose is to distort the specificities of other nations and civilizations.
This is particularly true when the West lurks behind these slogans to interfere
in the internal affairs of other countries and peoples whose religious and
cultural background differs from that of the West.
This trend was further confirmed by a researcher
who wrote about Europe indicating how it gave itself the right of tutelage in
setting up criteria and determining values, such as the respect of human rights
and democracy, which serve only to transgress and disrupt the intellectual and
political sovereignty of other nations. In fact, these values are noble in
essence, but they have been politically utilized against a number of countries
that refuse western tutelage, most particularly Islamic countries that have
their own conceptual framework and their own distinguished cultural vision of
these terms.(1)
Such Western tutelage on political values often
gives rise to opposing civilisational, political, popular and governmental
reactions in the Islamic world, thus diminishing the chances of a stable
civilisational co-existence of the two worlds.(2)
A number of Muslim authors and thinkers
distinguish between globalisation, as the West wishes to forcibly impose on us,
and the universality that represents the perspective of Islam, Islam being a
universal call. Allah says: "We sent thee not, but as a Mercy for all
creatures"(3). Universality is a concept that is not strange to the Islamic
vision which is inherently universal Islam being the ultimate and final
revelation made to man, contrary to globalisation through which the Western
civilization -represented in America- wishes to invade the world and impose its
cultural mode, values, principles and lifestyle on the rest of the world.
Globalisation as such is a representation of the Western vision of the world,
Western culture and Western hegemony. However, many an Arab and Muslim author
consider globalisation as an inevitable destiny, claiming that, thanks to the
communication revolution, the world has become a single village. This is true,
but the houses of this tiny village are not the same, and the inhabitants are
not equal.(4)
A number of researchers have endeavoured to
clarify the difference between universality as presented in the Islamic
conception and globalisation as a Western vision and approach that seeks to
control the world and impose its ideas, values, principles and culture on
others. Speaking at the symposium of "Islam and Globalisation", Jamal Al Banna
confirmed this in his paper titled "Islam: A religion of Universality not
Globalisation".(1)
However, many researchers did not feel the urge to
establish this distinction between globalisation and universality, a need that
many other researchers fulfilled profusely. Of the first group, one researcher
maintains that globalisation as "the existence of a common ground between the
peoples of the earth, which allows them to establish a relationship and provides
for universal laws that regulate them in the interest of all, is a theory that
is accepted by Islam. But the globalisation that involves imposing the
pragmatic, material and secular philosophy, and all the values, rules and
principles inherent to this philosophy on the inhabitants of the earth, is a
theory utterly rejected in the light of Islam".(2)
After this brief review of the nature of conflict,
its background and its outlook in current times, we will now tackle Islam's
perspective of dialogue.
Third: The Nature of Dialogue in Islam :
Dialogue occupies an important place in the
Qur'anic discourse. When this discourse addresses the individual, Allah says:
"Him Who created thee. Fashioned thee in due proportion, and gave thus a just
bias"(3), "O thou man!, thou art ever toiling towards thy Lord-painfully toiling
- but thou shalt meet Him"(4), for the individual is the core element of the
community, its cornerstone, and the purpose for which societies emerged and
developed.
In other cases, the individual addressed in the
Qur'anic discourse is the Prophet or the Messenger himself. Occurences of this
are numerous. For example when Allah says:" O Prophet, Deliver what has been
revealed to you from thy God. If you do not convey His Message, you shall fail.
Allah shall protect thee from people"(5), or when the Almighty addresses Adam
and Eve saying: "Did I not forbid thee that tree"(1), or when he addresses Noah
saying: "O Noah! Come down (from the Ark) with peace from Us".(2)
The addressee in the Qur'an may be a specific
group or community, such as the people of the book: "Say O people of the Book!
Come to common terms between us and you: That we worship none but God, that we
associate no partners with Him, that we erect not, from among ourselves, lords
and patrons other than God". If then they turn back, say ye: "Bear witness that
we (at least) are Muslims (bowing to God's will)!".(3)
In many instances, the Qur'an addresses the
believers. Allah says: "O believers, celebrate the name of thy Lord morning and
evening"(4). In many others, the target is the Unbelievers: "Say: "travel
through the earth and see what was the end of those who rejected Truth".(5)
In addressing the individual or the group, the
Qur'anic discourse invites them to deeply reflect on and ponder the truth of
their existence and the purpose behind it. Thus, all Quranic references to the
reason or the mind point to their lofty position, a fact which stresses the need
to use them and apply them to all matters, indeed an injunction that can be
observed in all the verses where the mind is referred to.
It is far from being a coincidence that, in many
cases, dialogue is associated with reason or the mind. Sometimes it occurs in
the form of verbs in the singular or plural form such as: Yaaqilun, yafqahun,
yataffakarun, yanzurun, yubserun, yaatabirun, yatadabbarun, yaamalun. In other
instances it is implied in phrases such as: uli al albbab, uli al absaar, or uli
nahii. Through this the Holy Qur'an sought to draw the attention to the
functions of the mind that Allah wished the human being to exercise in this
universe1.(6)
Al Aqqad confirmed this when he wrote that Islam
addressed the mind ('aql), in all its faculties and its functions,
conscience-taking, perception, distinction, moderation, contemplation,
ponderation and projection(7).
Based on this, dialogue in Islam, the final
revelation sent to all humanity, has many distinguished features that may be
considered as the bases of Islam's conception of dialogue. These bases can be
summarised in the following points:
1. Kind persuasion
2. Support of the truth
3. Unity of all mankind
4. Difference and diversity being a divine wisdom
These bases are also Qur'anic values and
principles that we use as a starting point in our civilisational dialogue with
other civilisations.
1- Kind persuasion :
Islam emphasised the importance of engaging in
dialogue with people of different views, particularly the People of the Book.
This was epitomised in Allah's saying: "Invite (all) to the Way of thy Lord with
wisdom and beautiful preaching; and argue with them in ways that are best and
most gracious"(1) and his saying "And dispute ye not with the People of the
Book, except with means better (than mere disputation)".(2)
The divine instructions contained in these two
verses came in the form of orders, the purpose behind this being that, in their
dialogue with opponents, whatever the religion or creed of the interlocutor,
preachers of the divine word must be wary of exceeding the rules of dialogue and
debate. The Qur'an sternly admonished against indulging in argumentation for the
sake of proving dexterity at it and showing off one's skill at disputation, or
for the sake of demolishing the other's arguments, as this may lead to deepening
the gap separating the two interlocutors and increase hostilities and may result
in the opposite of what was sought from it in the start.
Kind persuation is stressed in the Qur'an when it
calls upon the People of the Book to worship none but God : "Say: "O People of
the Book! Come to common terms as between us and you: That we worship none but
God; that we associate no partners with him; that we erect not, from among
ourselves, Lords and patrons other than God." If then they turn back, say ye:
"Bear witness that we (at least) are Muslims (bowing to God's Will)".(3)
Indeed, the Qur'an invites the People of the Book
to dialogue. It enjoins us not to kill those believing in a different faith or
those who do not embrace our religion. Rather, it stipulates that should they
reject your arguments, we must exert every effort to stress the truth of our
belief as the ultimate revelation sent down as a supplement to their own Books
and to endeavour to correct what perversion has befallen their sacred texts.
The Qur'anic approach to dialogue with opponents
is based on kind persuasion practiced by Muslim scholars throughout their long
history with the People of the Book. This is clearly reflected in the various
religious books that abound in our Islamic heritage.
This Islamic conception, says a modern thinker,
shows that "Argumentation with the people of the book concerned matters over
which religions were divided and how to refute an opposing view through logical
arguments and nothing else. It is practically impossible to find instances of a
Muslim disputation scholar who attacked his opponent because of colour or race.
The Muslim interlocutor has always been determined to deal with other
civilisations as the upholders of different views, and not as enemies or
adversaries".(1)
This also emerges in the biographies of Mu'utazila
and scholastic philosophers who, in the early centuries, mastered the art of
argumentation with people from other civilisations and religions as recorded in
the books left by the various factions and sects.
2- Endeavour to Bring Justice to Light :
The Holy Qur'an has addressed its opponents with
the purpose of bringing justice and truth to light, and not for the sake of
argument and philology: "Say: "O People of the Book! Come to common terms as
between us and you"(2), and: "...say: "Come! Let us gather together,- our sons
and your sons, our women and your women, ourselves and yourselves: Then let us
earnestly pray and invoke the curse of God on those who lie"(3)
The Qur'an also admonishes them for arguing about
matters of which they have no knowledge such as their allegation that Abraham,
the father of all prophets, peace be upon him, was Jewish or Christian. Allah
says in this regard: "Ah! Ye are those who fell to disputing (Even) in matters
of which ye had some knowledge! But why dispute ye in matters of which ye have
no knowledge? It is God Who knows, and ye who know not! Abraham was not a Jew
nor yet a Christian; but he was true in Faith, and bowed his will to God's
(Which is Islam), and he joined not gods with God. Without doubt, among men, the
nearest of kin to Abraham, are those who follow him, as are also this Apostle
and those who believe: And God is the Protector of those who have faith".(1)
The Qur'an's quest to establish justice is clear
in its testimony that many people of the book were worthy of the utmost trust as
in this verse: "Among the People of the Book are some who, if entrusted with a
hoard of gold, will (readily) pay it back"(2). The Qur'an also praises those
among the People of the Book who hearken for justice, faith and good deeds and
says in this regard: "Not all of them are alike: Of the People of the Book are a
portion that stand (For the right): They rehearse the Signs of God all night
long, and they prostrate themselves in adoration. They believe in God and the
Last Day; they enjoin what is right, and forbid what is wrong; and they hasten
(in emulation) in (all) good works: They are in the ranks of the righteous"(3)
In this same vein, the Qur'an says: "And there are, certainly, among the People
of the Book, those who believe in God, in the revelation to you, and in the
revelation to them, bowing in humility to God: They will not sell the Signs of
God for a miserable gain! For them is a reward with their Lord, and God is swift
in account"(4).
Determination to bring justice to the fore is also
manifest in the Qur'an's drawing of attention to the importance of referring to
the pious who constantly mention the name of God: "If ye realise this not, ask
of those who possess the Message"(5).
The Qur'an's determination to establish truth can
also be sensed in its admonition of the Jews who ignored the truth that was
revealed to them in the Torah where the Almighty stipulated punishment when He
said: "But why do they come to thee for decision, when they have (their own) law
before them?- therein is the (plain) command of God; yet even after that, they
would turn away. For they are not (really) People of Faith. It was We who
revealed the law (to Moses): therein was guidance and light. By its standard
have been judged the Jews, by the prophets who bowed (as in Islam) to God's
will, by the rabbis and the doctors of law: for to them was entrusted the
protection of God's book, and they were witnesses thereto: therefore fear not
men, but fear me, and sell not my signs for a miserable price. If any do fail to
judge by (the light of) what God hath revealed, they are (no better than)
Unbelievers".(1)
In the same Surah, Allah says of the Christians:
"And in their footsteps We sent Jesus the son of Mary, confirming the Law that
had come before him: We sent him the Gospel: therein was guidance and light, and
confirmation of the Law that had come before him: a guidance and an admonition
to those who fear God. Let the people of the Gospel judge by what God hath
revealed therein. If any do fail to judge by (the light of) what God hath
revealed, they are (no better than) those who rebel".(2)
In this divine verse, the Qur'an condemns some of
the People of the Book, Jews and Christians who ignored the teachings of the
Torah and the Bible and the truth that is so manifest in them: "If only the
People of the Book had believed and been righteous, We should indeed have
blotted out their iniquities and admitted them to gardens of bliss. If only they
had stood fast by the Law, the Gospel, and all the revelation that was sent to
them from their Lord, they would have enjoyed happiness from every side. There
is from among them a party on the right course: but many of them follow a course
that is evil".(3)
Addressing the People of the Book, the Qur'an
emphasised that their straying from the right path was the result of their
carelessness vis-à-vis the books of their prophets, and that all the People of
the Book who abided by the rules set out in the revelations made to their
prophets were considered as believers given the fact that the messages revealed
to all these prophets were in essence one and the same.
This point is highlighted in more verses of the
same Surah: "Say: O People of the Book! ye have no ground to stand upon unless
ye stand fast by the Law, the Gospel, and all the revelation that has come to
you from your Lord." It is the revelation that cometh to thee from thy Lord,
that increaseth in most of them their obstinate rebellion and blasphemy. But
sorrow thou not over (these) people without Faith. Those who believe (in the
Qur'an), those who follow the Jewish (scriptures), and the Sabians and the
Christians,- any who believe in God and the Last Day, and work righteousness,-
on them shall be no fear, nor shall they grieve. We took the covenant of the
Children of Israel and sent them apostles, every time, there came to them an
apostle with what they themselves desired not - some (of these) they called
impostors, and some they (go so far as to) slay"(1).
While calling the people of the Book to embrace
Islam, the Qur'an is also stressing that it is at the same time a call to
embrace all divine messages as Allah says: "O ye People of the Book! Believe in
what We have (now) revealed, confirming what was (already) with you, before We
change the face and fame of some (of you) beyond all recognition, and turn them
hindwards, or curse them as We cursed the Sabbath-breakers, for the decision of
God Must be carried out".(2)
3- Unity of Mankind :
In its discourse to man, Muslim and non-Muslim
alike, Islam has endeavoured to remind him of an important truth, that of the
unity of all mankind, a truth affirmed in the holy verse: "O mankind! Reverence
your Guardian-Lord, who created you from a single person, created, of like
nature, His mate, and from them twain scattered (like seeds) countless men and
women;- reverence God, through whom ye demand your mutual (rights), and
(reverence) the wombs (That bore you): for God ever watches over you".(3)
Allah, the Almighty, reminds us that in our
dialogue, whether as Muslims or non-Muslims, we should not forget that we are
the descendents of one man and one woman, a truth that should always be present
in our minds. In its incessant emphasis on this fact and as part of reminding
those who act in a contrary way to this truth, Islam seeks to provide all
chances of success for dialogue, remove tensions and help the rapprochement of
views.
Another important truth that the Holy Qur'an
reminds us of and that should never be disregarded in the issue of dialogue, is
that the diversity of peoples and nations is the result of God's will.
Difference in colour, race or language should not be used as a pretext to serve
one's own interests at the expense of another person or another people. This
fact is clearly stated in the verse: "The same religion has He established for
you as that which He enjoined on Noah - the which We have sent by inspiration to
thee - and that which We enjoined on Abraham, Moses, and Jesus: Namely, that ye
should remain steadfast in religion, and make no divisions therein: to those who
worship other things than God, hard is the (way) to which thou callest them".(1)
The criteria of superiority among human beings, as
the verse specifies, is piety, and piety is a matter between the individual and
his Creator, and in the hands of the Almighty lies the judgement of who is pious
and who is not.
The Qur'an's addressing of all mankind as one
race, descending from the same father and mother is repeated through the verses
of the Qur'an, reminding people that He is the Creator of everything on earth,
and that His greatness is manifest whenever one ponders the miracle of the
creation. Once this achieved, it becomes obvious that Allah alone, as the sole
and uncontested creator, deserves the worship of men who are thus reminded of
all the blessings He bestowed on them in terms of substenance, power, wealth,
offspring...etc.
While the Qur'an reminds all people, irrespective
of their appearance, language, nationality or religion, of the unity of their
origin, Islam, as a creed, has come as the final revelation sent to all humanity
and has placed great emphasis on the unity of the source of all divine
religions. In fact, all divine messages spring from the same source, Allah; the
Almighty Who chose some of his subjects above others to convey His message to
all men. These religions also concur on the one and only purpose for which they
were sent, namely to worship Allah as the one and only divinity.
This concept is further stressed in this verse of
the Holy Qur'an: "If it had been thy Lord's will, they would all have believed,-
all who are on earth! wilt thou then compel mankind, against their will, to
believe!".(2)
In its message to mankind, the Qur'an enjoins man
not to surrender to the temptation of Satan in order not to be led astray as his
ancestors were when they ate the fruit of the forbidden tree being chased out of
heaven as reports the Al-'Aaraf Surah. The Qur'an's teachings here apply to all
men, at any time and pace, with no difference whatsoever between white and
black, short or tall, male or female, Arab or non-Arab.
4- Diversity and Difference : Divine Wisdom :
Another important point stressed in the Qur'an
with regards to dialogue between opponents is that the diversity of men in
shape, race, language, culture and creeds is part of divine wisdom and if Allah
had so wished, he would have made all men Muslims and gathered them in a single
nation: "If it had been thy Lord's will, they would all have believed,- all who
are on earth! wilt thou then compel mankind, against their will, to believe"(1),
the Qur'an says.
The mission of the Prophet, as was that of all
Messengers, is to transmit the message of his God to all men and teach them to
differentiate between right and wrong. Man's wholehearted embracing of these
truths is not in his hands, a concept stressed on many occasions and in many
parts of the Qur'an. "Let there be no compulsion in religion: Truth stands out
clear from Error".(2)
The Qur'an emphasises that diversity in races and
intellectual and religious difference among men was meant by Allah and that
should He have wished, He would have made them into one nation, as he says: "And
if your God so desired, He would have made people into one nation"(3). This idea
is repeated in various parts of the Qur'an and emerges in the An-Nahl and Shura
Surahs, by way of stressing that diversity and difference are an act of divine
wisdom, and preventing these differences from becoming a tool for the
denigration of opponents of other nations.
Another sublime concept of the respect of
diversity and difference can also be found in the Qur'an and in Allah's verse:
"And did not God check one set of people by means of another, the earth would
indeed be full of mischief: But God is full of bounty to all the worlds"(4),
meaning that men's interactions, with whatever fighting and conflict they may
involve, are sometimes necessary to redress injustices and reveal the face of
truth. Attention should be brought to the choice of terms in the use of
interaction (bringing people against each other) more than fighting to teach us
that legitimate fighting can serve to fend off an aggression and push off the
aggressors, and not the warfare of hegemony, or that one that serves material
and personal interests.
These strong interactions may sometimes be
necessary to protect the houses of God from destruction and attack as is
contained in the following verse: "Did not God check one set of people by means
of another, there would surely have been pulled down monasteries, churches,
synagogues, and mosques, in which the name of God is commemorated in abundant
measure. God will certainly aid those who aid his (cause);- for verily God is
full of Strength, Exalted in Might, (able to enforce His Will)".(1)
Tadafu or struggle, in spite of the devastation
and destruction it may lead to, still remains legitimate in defending and
protecting sanctities from defilement and destruction.
The Islamic term in this regard, Jihad, carries a
stronger connotation of Tadafu than of war, since jihad can be the struggle of
man against injustice, contrary to the term of "war". Wars are often engaged in
to achieve victory over a nation, pilfer its wealth and destroy its assets, with
no crime being committed by this people or nation.
While Tadafu in the defence of justice, through
the use of the sword or physical strength, may be necessary sometimes, Tadafu
through continuous dialogue with the aim to solve conflicts and differences is
easier and preferable. It has also become an urgent necessity in current times,
imposed by the strong demand to explain the truth of this religion and expose
the distortion that it is subjected to from the enemies of the Ummah.
To sum up, these four fundamentals could be used
as Islamic foundations that affirm the need for civilisational, intellectual and
religious dialogue with other civilisations and religions, in particular in the
light of the technological progress and the communication revolution that have
bridged distances between the far reaches of the globe, and at an age when the
word and image have acquired unprecedented authority and power.
In truth, civilisational, cultural, religious,
political and economic dialogue has become of urgent importance in a world where
interests have become intertwined more than any other time past. Dialogue thus
becomes a channel of vital importance and usefulness from the perspective of
Islam, in particular civilisational and religious dialogue which many Western
circles, including the Vatican, have over the past four decades adopted and
called for.
Stressing the importance of dialogue, a prominent
Arab thinker says : "The dialogue of cultures, or civilisations, or religions,
or the Islamic-Christian dialogue, or the North-South dialogue, or the dialogue
of Islam and the West, or the Arab-European dialogue, are all names of one and
the same theme, or closely related and intertwined themes that differ from each
other only by their degree of generality or specificity".(1)
This thinker maintains that the subject is worth
being reviewed and treated with patience and dexterity to enlarge the base of
those convinced and appreciative of dialogue on both parts. This would be
achieved in the hope that this matter progress beyond the age of joint action
co-operation among the champions of peace and justice to the level of uprooting
the seeds of hatred among all peoples and nations.
Dialogue is an old tradition that prevailed among
neighbouring civilisations that exchanged knowledge and know-how as well as
products and lifestyles such as culinary habits, dress and architectural styles.
They also borrowed expressions and social traditions in such a way that these
became part of their language and ways of expression and became an integral part
of their social milieu, and such is the way that civilisations grow and prosper.
Were it not for the diversity of peoples and
civilisations, none of all this would have been possible, and for this purpose
Allah has created us in tribes and peoples to know each other, and if Allah has
wished we would have been one nation, but the Almighty's disposed that we be
created different and remain this, perchance, to meet and interact.
Arab-European dialogue emerged after October 1973
War when all Arabs closed ranks behind Egypt and Syria and cut the oil supply to
America and the European countries that supported the Zionist entity. The
emergence of such a dialogue was a source of concern for the Zionist
organisations which endeavoured by all means to disrupt this dialogue, as
reports this Arab thinker: "Since dialogue was introduced as a concept, the
Israeli and Zionist policy has generally been to fight against this dialogue and
spare no means or effort in planting obstacles on its course. Israel differed
from the United States in the style it used to foil this dialogue. To achieve
its purpose, it put to use a policy of deep infiltration of Western Europe,
penetrating governmental institutions and political and information
institutions, and remained close to political decision-makers influencing the
decision-making process, by means of members carrying the citizenship of these
European countries"(2).
Fourth: Obstacles to Dialogue :
Although civilisational dialogue, on which we
presented an Islamic view, has, in fact, already been initiated a long time ago
and at various levels, Religious dialogue was first introduced about four
decades ago following the Vatican's conference of 1962 that resolved to set up
an Islamic-Christian dialogue. Indeed, in the pursuit of this endeavour, the
Vatican launched a special magazine and the Al-Azhar Al-Sharif created a
commission for dialogue led by the chancellor of this Islamic institution. In
terms of political and economic relations, the Euro-Mediterranean dialogue was
initiated after the War of October 1973.
However, and in spite of its importance, this
dialogue is today confronted with many difficulties that stand in the way of
achieving the desired objectives and the expectations. In our perspective, these
obstacles fall in two categories, internal and external:
- Internal obstacles :
Most prominent among these obstacles are the
internal conflicts that persist between countries within the Islamic world in
spite of Islam's unification of ranks and its warning against the dangers of
division in many verses: "And hold fast, all together, by the rope which God
(stretches out for you), and be not divided among yourselves; and remember with
gratitude God's favour on you; for ye were enemies and He joined your hearts in
love, so that by His Grace, ye became brethren"(1)
The greatest manifestation of Islamic unity
preached in many Surahs and verses of the Qur'an and fostered by the Prophet
(PBUH) among his followers, was the love and mutual affection that was shown by
the Madina inhabitants when the Muhajireen arrived from Mecca. The latter were
warmly welcomed by the Ansar who shared with them whatever they owned, in all
serenity and generosity, and with a spirit that reflected the truth of Islamic
solidarity and fraternity in its most noble meaning.
However, it seems that the teachings of Islam are
totally different from the actual practice of nowadays Muslim communities. A
leading figure of Islamic thought says: "The current reality and state of
Muslims cause disappointment and sometimes despair. If you look around the
world, you will never find two neighbouring Muslim countries that are not
divided up by conflict and strife that render wise men helpless".
There is an increasingly strong impression that
contemporary Muslims have little regard for the warnings of the Qur'an against
division and conflict and what they may lead to. Allah says: "and fall into no
disputes, lest ye lose heart and your power depart"(1). Muslims have to diffuse
the increasingly worsening internal conflicts tearing them apart, for the age we
live in requires unity and the closing of ranks. Otherwise, we will miss the
opportunity or find ourselves cut off the world and left to oblivion. What is
amazing in this matter is the truth that the factors of unity among us exceed
by far those of division. We share, the same faith, the same language, the same
history, in short, all factors that guarantee unity and help promote it.
These internal conflicts and differences
negatively impact on the position of Muslims in the process of dialogue and
render it difficult to justify the struggle among brothers of the same country,
as used to be the case in Afghanistan. Conflicts, and the ensuing destruction
and killing have negatively impacted on the image of Islam in the West which
tends to exaggerate these events arguing that Islam calls for killing those who
oppose it, that it is a religion of terrorism that imposes its opinion on others
through the use of the force, in addition to many other unfounded allegations
that conflicts and strife have indeed contributed to their association with
Islam.
For example, in Europe, and in spite of the
violent wars and conflicts that broke out among European nations, they remain
unified in the face of economic globalisation and the American threat,
overlooking the conflicts of the past. Muslims should strive to achieve the
unity so much urged on by the Qur'an, and to avoid division and struggle that
result in nothing but loss and destruction.
Islamic unity, a religious necessity advocated by
the Qur'an, has become of practical importance in the light of the current
international juncture in which the weak has no place. Muslims must endeavour to
achieve political and economic unity in order to be able to negotiate with the
others from a position of strength. Unity also makes their word one in the
critical matters that confront them, the most important of which today being the
Palestinian cause.
Indeed, several dialogue champions focus on the
importance of Islamic unity in facing the current challenge that emerge as a
necessity for survival. Dr Ahmed Chalabi says: "The challenges that confront the
Islamic world cannot be overcome by Islamic countries if they remain divided up,
for these challenges exceed the power of any single nation. The unity of Muslim
states is the only way to triumph and victory, with the will of Allah. This
unity, should it happen, would not be a novelty, for Islam is not only a
religion of rituals and obligations, it is also a religion of values, principles
and rules of behaviour, and foremost among those mentioned in the Qur'an are
co-operation and unity. Co-operation has become today a necessity for the
preservation of life".
Muslims have to achieve a political alliance
through such organisations as the Arab League and the Organisation of the
Islamic Conference. The role of these organisations should also be optimised so
that all decisions taken at their level may have practical impact.
It is also necessary for Muslims to accelerate the
creation of a common Islamic market, instead of remaining an outlet for imported
products, especially that the Islamic world possesses the necessary components
and foundations that would ensure its independence from all other countries.
Today, the Islamic world spreads over a vast geographical area that contains at
least 75%, of all the industrial and agricultural products needed.
In the cultural and civilisational field, it is
necessary to put to contribution the Arab and Islamic satellite channels in
promoting unity and cultural and spiritual development of the Muslim individual
instead of mediocre programmes that neither nurture our souls, nor reflect our
values, principles nor our true religion which preaches purity, decency and good
morals.
External Obstacles :
External obstacles are mainly embodied in the
Zionist movement which strives to hinder all forms of dialogue and consecrate
the stereotyped, distorted image of Islam in the West. This is all the more true
since Zionists control all media channels and are close to decision-making
circles.
The Zionist movement warns Western societies
against Islam, a tactic used extensively by many Jewish orientalists, such as
the Zionist Bernard Lewis who supervizes the department of oriental studies in
one of the most prestigious American universities (Princeton). After having
worked at the London University for more than sixteen years, he moved to
Princeton University in the United States within the framework of the
Jewish-Zionist exodus that sought to control political decision-making and
research centres in America.
In his study titled "The Muslim Discovery of
Europe", Bernard Lewis speaks in his second chapter of the Islamic perspective
of the world and maintains that Muslims divide the world to provinces that
partly fall in the land of Islam, inhabited by Muslims who abide by the Islamic
Shariah within one state, evolve under one ruler and worship one God, that
therefore, the whole world should be governed by one law, the Islamic Shariah
and all mankind should embrace Islam or bow to its rule and that Jihad is one of
the Islamic duties that must continuously be engaged in in order to maintain the
rule of Islam.(1).
Opposing the house of Islam -Lewis says- is the
house of war, which represents the provinces that fall outside the borders of
the Islamic Ummah. Historically speaking, Jihad has been considered the greatest
component of Islamic Shariah since the emergence of Islam and those early
centuries when Muslim soldiers had the opportunity to wage this war in their
conquest of France, Byzantine, China and India. Lewis also maintains that
following the Prophet's saying: "The infidels are one nation", Muslims consider
all non-Muslims as unbelievers and must either convert to Islam or be killed. As
for the second category, the People of the Book, the believers in divine
messages that have been distorted and manipulated, they are given a choice
between Islam, capital punishment or the paying of the Jizya (tax) therefore
becoming Dhimmis.(2)
According to this division between the land of
Islam and the land of war, Muslims perceive Western society as part of the land
of war that must be fought through Jihad which has never ceased, and will
continue until Islam reigns, uncontested, over the whole world.(3)
In "Islam and the West", Bernard Lewis set a
chapter for the return to Islam where he analyses the movements of Islamic
revival since Mohammed Bin Abdulwahab in the Arab Peninsula and the movement of
the Muslim Brothers in Egypt who declared war against the Zionist movement in
Palestine and against the British Empire. Then he addresses the cases of the
Palestinian Fath Movement, the Hezbollah and the Jihad, as well as of the
Islamic revolution in Iran.
These anti-West fundamental groups are present in
all parts of the Islamic world and hold the power in various countries. There is
a struggle between secularity and Islam. Islam represents a force but is
confronted with the power of governments(4).
This Zionist orientalist, known for his hatred for
Islam and Arabity has a strong and well-known impact on the orientalist movement
in Europe and in America. Suffice it to say that Samuel Huntington, author of
the book "the Clash of Civilisations?" belongs to his school.
In addition to all this, one may add the treatment
of Arabs and Muslims by the West, from an opportunistic perspective, considering
their countries as a market for their products and goods and not a partner of
equal footing. What is needed to achieve this status of equality is an Arab and
Islamic unity that is so far from existing, even at its minimal degree.
All these external and internal obstacles are, in
our view, the main obstacles to dialogue. Muslims and Arabs should think
seriously of applying a measure of reality in tackling these problems and these
obstacles if their wish is to contribute efficiently and seriously to a
civilisational dialogue where they would have a chance at an exchange, and not
be limited to mere consumers. Should this positive achievements occur, it would
be conducive to reversing the prevailing stereotype image of Muslims in the West
as a backward nation, fighting against each other over pleasures, a nation that
is in full enmity with the free mind and with liberty, treating women with
utmost contempt and disrespect.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
(*) Published by Simon & Schuster Rockfeller, New
York.
(1) Mahmud Cheet Al Khattab, "The Messengers of
the Prophet", 1/101, Dar Al Andalus, Jeddah, First Edition, 1996.
(2) William Suri, "The Crusade Wars", 1/102,
translated by Hassan Habach, the Egyptian General Board of Authors, Egypt, 1991.
(1) Ibid., 1/102.
(2) Ibid., 1/104, and compare with Abdu Qassim, "The
Crusades", 109-112, 'Alam Al Maarifa, Kuwait, 1990.
(3) John Esposito, Islamic Threat: the Myth or
Reality, p-178, Oxford University Press, 1992.
(1) Mahmud Sahkir, "A Message on the Way to Our
Culture", pp- 169-174.
(2) Roger Garaudy, "Le Dialogue des
Civilisations", p- 66, translated by Adil Al Aoua, Dar Ouidat, Beirut, Third
Edition, 1986.
(3) Ibid., p. 54.
(1) Ibid., source and page.
(2) Louis Awad, "Modern Egyptian Thought", Part I,
and compare with Jalal Kishk, in his book “I entered Hebron”, pp. 20-23.
(3) Mahmud Shakir, " A Message on the Way to Our
Culture", pp- 127-135, Dar Al Hilal, 2nd Edition, and compare with Muhammed Al
Bahi "Modern Islamic Thought ", pp- 430-433, Maktabat Wahba, 10th Edition, 1978.
(1) "The Trap of Globalisation", "'Alam Al
Maarifa" Series, Kuwait, 1998.
(2) Huntington, "Islam and the West, Horizons of
Clash", p- 41, translated by Magdi Sharshar, 1st Edition, Maktabat Madbuli,
1995.
(1) Ibid.
(1) Sami Al Khazindar, "Muslims and Europeans,
towards a Better Model of Co-Existence",
p. 17, The UAE Center for Strategic Studies and
Research, 1st Edition, 1997.
(2) Ibid.
(3) Al Anbia, verse 107.
(2) Muhammed Imara, "Globalisation and the
Issues of Islamic Thought", pp- 118-121, "Symposium of Islam and
Globalisation", edited by Muhammed Ibraheem Mabruk, Ad-Dar Al Qaoumiyya Al
Arabia, Cairo, 1999.
(1) "Islam, A Religion of Universality not
Globalisation", p. 141, Symposium of Islam and Globalisation.
(2) Ahmed Abdulrahmane, "Globalisation, An Islamic
Point of View", pp- 99-100, Symposium of Islam and Globalisation.
(3) Al-Infitar, verse 7.
(4) Al-Inshiqaq, verse 6.
(5) Al-Maeda, verse 69.
(1) Al-Aaraf, verse 22.
(2) Hud, verse 48.
(3) Al Imrane, verse 64.
(4) Al-Ahzab, verse 42.
(5) Al Anaam, verse 12.
(6) Zaqzouq, "Intellectual and Social Issues in
the Light of Islam", p-90, Maktabat Wahba, 1st Edition, 1990.
(7) Al Aqqad, "Thinking is an Islamic Duty",
pp- 8-9, Dar Nahdat Misr, 1994, Cairo.
(1) Annahl, verse 125.
(2) Al 'Ankabut, verse 46.
(3) Al Imrane, verse 64.
(1) Muhammed Abed Al Jabri, "The Issue of
Identity: Arabism, Islam and the West", pp- 193-194, Centre for Arab Unity
Studies, Beirut, 1995.
(2) Al-Imrane, verse 64.
(3) Al-Imrane, verse 61.
(1) Al Imrane, verses 65-68.
(2) Al Imrane, verse 75.
(3) Al Imrane, verses 113-115.
(4) Al Imrane, verse 199.
(5) Annahl, verse 43.
1) Al Maeda, verses 43-44.
(2) Al Maeda, verses 46-47.
(3) Al Maeda, verses 65-66.
(1) Al Maeda, verses 68-70.
(2) An-Nissaa, verse 47.
(3) An-Nissaa, verse 1.
(1) Al Hujurat, verse 13.
(2) Ash-Shura, verse 13.
(1) Yunus, verse 99.
(2) Al-baqara, verse 256.
(3) Hud, verse 118.
(4) Al Baqara, verse 251.
(1) Al Haj, verse 40.
(1) Dr. Nasser Eddine Al Asad, "We and the Others,
Dialogue and Conflict", p- 69, Arab Institution for Studies and Publishing,
Amman, 1st Edition, 1997.
(2) Ahmed Sidqi Addujani, 'Arab-European
Dialogue', pp- 124-125, Dar Al Mustaqbal Al Arabi, Cairo.
(1) Al Imrane, verse 103.
(1) Al Anfal, verse 46.
(1) "Conflict of Civilizations and the Role of
Islamic Civilization in this Conflict", p-117, Maktabat Annahda Al Missriyya,
1st Edition, 1997.
(2) Lewis Bernard: "The Muslim Discovery of
Europe", pp-60-61, London, 1982.
(3) Ibid.
(1) Ibid., pp. 138-154.
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