Contents

Chapter Five :

Means of Development : Systems, Programmes, and Methods

5.1. Reforming Educational Systems

The times we live in are characterized by a boom in the domain of information and knowledge, by cultural promiscuity and ramification, and also by the emergence of many new forms of art. Therefore, in order to move with the times, the Islamic Umma should design new, adequate and relevant educational programmes so as to bring up its new generations in accordance with the principles of Islam and its ethics, on the one hand, and to assume its human responsibility in the world of today by ensuring prosperity and glory for its individuals and groups, on the other.

In order to achieve these goals, the Umma must absolutely revitalize its moral and behavioural standards by taking into consideration the development factors discussed in the preceding chapter. In addition, the Umma must perfect such means of development as educational programmes, teaching methods, pedagogical tools and devices, and the educational system in general.

I believe that a radical and comprehensive reform in this domain would be the most efficient means to achieve the desired goal. Therefore, we should, in the first place, get rid of the burden of the imported structures that constitute the present system of public education which, in reality, is a continuation of the Western colonial system of education. In fact, the Western colonial system itself has evolved with the passage of time, but the frameworks inherited from the West, or developed through imitation, have not undergone the slightest change in Muslim countries. In our view, these obsolete colonial systems of education constitute the most serious hindrance to the progress of the Umma and its development, as illustrated by the observable imbalance between the real needs of the Umma and the products of its present educational systems.

It is high time we reassessed the system of primary education so as to make of it the seed from which the fruit-laden tree will grow. At the same time, we should reflect about the stages that follow primary education in order to build up at the secondary education level, the right student for the right type of education. Indeed, it is high time we got rid of the burden of universities, their encumbrance and costs, and their boring and unjust traditions. We should relieve students from the permanent threat of examinations, fear of failure, tedious and tiring revisions for examinations, and only for examinations. Has the time not come for us to get rid of the illusion of faked degrees which, in most cases, reflect neither the level of scholarship of their holders nor their ability to make the Umma benefit from their degrees ?

We do not believe that there are easy solutions to the problem. The difficulty resides not in the conception of an ideal system of education, but rather in the deep-rooted habits and firmly established practices that characterize our present educational systems. It would be foolish to suggest that these systems can easily be abolished or changed. Nevertheless, the search for Islamic solutions that are suitable for the Islamic Umma is the duty of any Muslim who has some experience or a say in this domain.

In this regard, I believe that we are in a position to claim that it is our duty to educate new generations that can complete their education in fourteen years' time, so that, at the age of twenty, they would be ready and able to contribute to the socio-economic development of their respective countries.

Thus, primary education can take six years, during which the child should study three subjects : (a) the Holy Qur’an, in order to learn portions from it and understand their meanings; (b) the noble Prophetic tradition, to enable the child to learn the basic principles and pillars of Islam, as well as the articles of faith ; (c) the Arabic language, which is the language of the Qur’an, in order to master it both in speech and writing.

In order not to confuse the child's mind at school, it is important not to teach him any other subject, such as Science or Mathematics. Concerning History and Geography, they can be substituted for by the study of the Prophet's biography and the conditions of Muslims in the world.

It is worth pointing out that the suppression of such subjects from the primary education curriculum would in no way jeopardise the future of the child, especially if we take into consideration the wealth of information that the child gathers inside the family and, also, from the media.

If this programme is implemented according to the suggested strategy, it is certain that, after six years, the child will have completed his primary education. In addition, he will have strong faith in God, and a fair amount of knowledge concerning the basic principles of Islam, for he will have learned a number of Surahs from the Qur’an and mastered the Arabic language. This will make him realize that he is a member of the Muslim Umma, whose eternal mission is to spread Islam.

But a more drastic change is required at the phase which immediately follows primary education. We suggest that the first two years of this phase should be devoted to the pupil's guidance. Therefore, there would be no harm in calling this stage : a “guidance stage” instead of a “preparatory stage”. We propose that all the usual subjects be taught at this level. However, particular attention should be paid to the maintenance of what was acquired at the primary level in terms of language and religion, bearing in mind, also, that, at this stage, the primary purpose is not to cram the pupil's memory with facts, but rather to discover his aptitudes and inclinations so as to determine the kind of studies that would suit his personality and potential. It follows, therefore, that the task of educators, who should have special training in the field, is to observe and study individual pupils so as to be able to recognize their potential talents.

The subjects to be taught at this stage should not be imposed upon the learner; instead, they should be explained and proposed to him with a fair amount of advising. After a period of two years, it would be clear whether the pupil was born to be an engineer, a physician, a businessman, or a teacher, etc.

In this regard, knowledge of the individual students' opinions, through permanent dialogue with them and their relatives and friends, will certainly provide very useful information for sound careers advising, which would play a crucial role in determining the pupil's future. For this reason, it is necessary to resort to valid psychological tests and other scientific methods to make sure that the pupil is properly and relevantly advised.

It is understood that, at the age of fourteen, the pupil will be mature enough to decide which course to follow in his studies, and to choose his favourite field of study. Of course, the advisors' alertness and their accurate observation will be crucial for the success of the careers advising process and, ultimately, for the success of the child both in his studies and in his life.

After the careers advising stage, the student goes to university, where he spends six years. University education involves two cycles. During the first cycle, which lasts four years, the student is offered a course programme relevant to the subject matter he has chosen to study. The second cycle, which lasts two years, is devoted to practical training in which the student applies the skills and knowledge acquired in the preceding four years of study.

It is assumed that, after having completed the two cycles at the age of twenty, the student will then be qualified to function as an engineer, or a physician, or a professor, etc., according to his field of specialization. It is possible to obtain such quick results by devoting half a semester of each academic year to the study of courses in the field of specialization. The other semester can be divided between the courses that are of immediate relevance to the field of specialty, on the one hand, and the principal Islamic subjects, on the other.

Suppression from the curriculum of all those subjects that concern neither religion nor the field of specialization will enable us to shorten the period of study. We will thus avoid wasting time on subjects that are of no practical use to the student, but which we continue to teach in imitation of the Western system of education. Indeed, if the student wishes to increase his general cultural knowledge, he can use other means than those on which society should spend from its resources. For, although we do not underestimate any field of knowledge, we do not believe that, for instance, the study of religious wars in Europe will be of much use to a student who is studying to become an electrical engineer. Thus, by making the best use of the time of study and focusing on the studied discipline, the student will be able to reach the expected level after secondary and university education. We are convinced that a comparison between the two systems (i.e. the system already in use and the one proposed here) will, God willing, yield results in favour of the system we have proposed. God alone grants success and guides whoever He wills to the right path.

Two points need to be made here. The first, which was touched upon in the preceding chapter, has to do with the comprehensiveness and universality of science. In this regard, we have given the example of medical training, which requires that the medical student be completely familiar with a number of scientific disciplines such as those mentioned by Ibn Abdulbarr, in the same manner as the study of Mathematics is necessary for the study of engineering. However, we believe that when a student specializes in a given scientific discipline, we should exempt him from the study of any other discipline that has neither direct nor indirect relevance to his field of specialization. In cases where secondary disciplines are relevant to the field of specialization, we should see to it that the student is presented with only that which is necessary for him to master his principal subject matter.

The second point concerns the teaching of languages, especially to non-Arab Muslims. Given that our aim is to develop an Islamic system of education, we should admit the fact that whoever has not been taught the language of Islam will not be able to know what Islam is : The Qur’an was revealed in Arabic. Therefore, there is little point in trying to teach Islamic subjects in languages other than Arabic. However, there is no harm in teaching scientific subjects in any language that is suitable to anyone of the Islamic countries. In any case, we still need to use foreign languages in certain fields of study in order to have access to basic scientific references not as yet available in Arabic. In such cases, it would be enough for the student to learn the required language for the specific purpose of satisfying his needs ; otherwise, it would be believed that the Arabic language cannot describe or express scientific facts. In fact, this idea is one among many rumours that are being circulated by the enemies of Arabism and Islam.

5.2. Curricula Development

5.2.1. Religious Education Programmes

5.2.1.1. The Holy Qur’an Programme

The Holy Qur’an is the Book that was revealed unto the Messenger (PBUH) as a miraculous token to confirm his Prophethood. The most fluent masters of rhetoric among the Arabs were challenged to produce one single verse that would match the Qur’an if they were right in what they claimed. And when they failed to do so, God's response came in clear and explicit terms : “Say : Verily, though mankind and the jinn should assemble to produce the like of this Qur’an, they could not produce the like thereof though they were helpers one of another” (XVII : 88).

The Qur’an, which was revealed to guide mankind with its divine light to the divine Truth, is at the same time a constitution and a programme. It teaches the Muslim how to organize his life in this world and it reveals to him his happiness in the Hereafter. Every Muslim is required to read “The Opening” Surah of the Qur’an in his prayer and to learn by heart as many other Surahs as he can, to recite them in worship and to meditate upon their meanings. The Qur’an is the Islamic constitution from which every Muslim should learn that which would enable him to worship his Lord Alone, to comply with the teachings of the Lord's Messenger, and to provide good and useful advice to the Umma.

Indeed, Muslims have always devoted their great attention to the Qur’an in order to determine its various readings, on the one hand, and to explain its meanings and extrapolate legal rules from it, on the other. In so doing, they have endeavoured to draw relevant lessons from its guidance and stories, as well as from the reasons that motivated its revelations.

God revealed the Qur’an in different Surahs and contexts in order to inspire His Messenger with confidence. Being phrased elegantly, its Surahs can be psalmodized. The Qur’an is the Scripture whereof there is no doubt. It is a revelation from the Most Wise and the Most Praiseworthy. God Himself saw to it that its parts are assembled, read, memorized and explained : “Will they not then ponder on the Qur’an ? If it had been from other than Allah they would have found therein much incongruity” (IV : 82).

Centuries have passed since the Qur’an was revealed, but its miraculous character persists and continues to defy both time and science, as at each epoch there appears new evidence confirming the Almighty's Word : “Say : Though the sea became ink for the Words of my Lord, verily the sea would be used up before the Words of my Lord were exhausted, even though We brought the like thereof to help” (XVIII : 109).

Muslims are used to beginning their children's education by teaching them Quranic verses at a very early stage. In our view, this is a good tradition, because Quranic verses leave in the heart of the child a divine light which makes him find faith a likeable thing. Thus, in addition to learning what is necessary for him to say his prayers, the child also acquires a sense of discipline and obligation and learns how to articulate and speak the language properly.

The teaching of the Qur’an to young children may be even more fruitful if the educator makes it his task to explain to the young learner the meanings of the learned Surahs. It may be argued that, at the age of five, the child is not yet able to assimilate Quranic texts the meaning of which is known only to those who are thoroughly versed in the field. However, the choice of the Surahs, combined with patience in providing appropriate and simplified explanations, may yield unexpected good results. Obviously, this will require that an experimental study be conducted in this domain and its effects be systematically analysed.

Obviously, what we are proposing here is that the educator start teaching the Qur’an to a five year old child. In this case, we suggest that the teacher begin with “The Unity” Surah ; and when the child has learned the Surah by heart, he should be taught the following meanings by way of explanation :

i) There is no other God but Allah. God has no associates.

ii) God is not like human beings, and nothing is comparable to Him. He did not beget and was not begotten. He is Eternal and Creator of the universe. Those who claim that Jesus is His son are not telling the truth.

iii) God is Unique ; He has no analogue or associate.

There is no doubt that, at this stage, the child's mind is capable of imagining the Creator of the universe Who is absolutely unique in His ability and will.

After “The Unity” Surah, the child should be taught “The Day Break” and “The Mankind” Surahs and be provided with a brief and simplified explanation to the effect that the reading of these two Surahs provides security and protection against demons, sorcerers, and mischief of the sneaking whisperers that whisper evil in the hearts of mankind in the intense darkness of the night. To help the child understand these evils, the teacher can relate to him suitable stories so as not to traumatize him psychologically. In any case, what matters at this stage is that the child should be made to understand that the Holy Qur’an provides protection and immunity against fear.

At the age of five, the child is capable of grasping the sense of other Surahs such as “The Clot”, for instance, especially if it is taught to him in connection with its context of revelation. In this respect, the teacher should relevantly explain to the learner the benefits of education, the sacredness of the pen, and the necessity of giving thanks to the Benefactor. Also, the child can be made to understand that tyranny, which is censured by the Almighty, should be avoided, because it is as evil as the act of dissuading believers from saying their prayers. To provide the child with relevant background information, the teacher should relate to him stories about the hardships which Muslims had to undergo in Mecca in the early years of Islam, and how they persevered in spite of oppression and torture, until God granted them victory.

By reading “The Earthquake” Surah, the child can understand what is meant by the “Day of Resurrection”, “Doomsday”, or the “Day of Final Judgement”, in addition to the notion of “Absolute Justice”, as expressed in the following Quranic verses : “And whosoever does good an atom's weight will see it then ; And whosoever does ill an atom's weight will see it then” (XCIX 7-8) Likewise, “The Defrauding” Surah provides the opportunity for teaching the child what inequity and unfairness in transactions means, and what kind of punishment is reserved for the transgressors and the cheats.

If the child manages to fully understand the basic meanings of these Surahs in early years at schools, it will be a good thing. At the end of his primary education, it would be appropriate to make him memorize “The Private Apartments” Surah. In this case, the teacher should make it his task to explain all the meanings, parables and allegories involved in the Surah. This would enable the young learner to understand the necessity and the rules of coexistence with other people, the importance of mutual acquaintance and respect, and why calumny and derision should be avoided.

In “The Moon” Surah, the pupil will find samples of stories of those messengers and prophets that were distinguished for their exemplary determination. The teacher is required to relate such stories in their authentic versions, relying on authoritative exegesies and avoiding unreliable Judaica.

During the secondary school education, the student can progress gradually in his study of the Qur’an, according to his ability. It would be necessary, at this stage, to select specific Surahs for study which are relevant to, and suitable for, the learner's age and mental capacities. Thus, in “The Light” Surah, for example, we find many verses that urge the reader/addressee to be chaste and virtuous, to abstain from committing any act of indecency, and to resist temptation. This Surah includes commands issued for both men and women. Male believers are ordered to lower their gaze and to be modest, while female believers are told to lower their gaze and not to reveal their adornment to those who should not see it. The Surah also warns against adultery, false accusations against honorable women, and threatens with severe punishment those who desire that slander should be spread concerning those who believe. Thus, in addition to banning impudence and indecency in behaviour, the Surah spells out the rules and conventions that should be observed in order to ensure successful interaction among people, making it a point of principle that the individual Muslim should never intrude upon, or violate, his brother or neighbour's privacy, or enter other people's houses without being invited, making a special allowance only for those who are compelled by urgent necessity and for close relatives and intimates friends.

Some of the verses in this Surah explain to the Muslim reader how Allah wafts the clouds, then gathers them, then makes them into layers, and then causes rain to come forth from between them. Thus, Allah sends down from the heaven mountains wherein is hail; He smites with it whom He will, and averts it from whom He will. Other verses explain how Allah has created every beast of water; of them is a kind that crawls upon its belly ; another kind goes upon two legs; and still another kind goes upon four. Allah creates what he will. He is able to do all things.

All these verses consist of admonitions and portents for those who are endowed with a sense of discernment. These admonitions are meant to enlighten those whom Allah has chosen from among His servants. Allah is the Light of the heavens and the earth.

5.2.1.2. The Sunna Programme

Knowledge of the Qur’an necessarily requires knowledge of the noble Prophetic tradition. Indeed, the Prophet's words and deeds, as well as the traditions of his noble hearted Companions, provide a valid explanation of the Quranic discourse ; whereas the Sunna provides an overall explanation of the Qur’an as a whole, making clear and explicit the rules and regulations included in it. Therefore, to abide by the Prophetic tradition is a must, for the Qur’an explicitly orders that we obey the Messenger (PBUH), who “does not speak of his own desire” and “unto him was revealed the Book and the Wisdom”. Following the majority of Muslim scholars, we assume that by “Wisdom” is meant “the Sunna”.

The Sunna, which provides detailed explanations of the various precepts, of their motivations and goals, allows the believer to make a clear distinction between what is permitted and lawful, and what is forbidden or unlawful. In addition, it enlightens the believer concerning unclear, or obscure, cases, which he is instructed to avoid so as not to violate certain taboos.

In the Sunna, we also find expert knowledge concerning transactions, which consist of two kinds : permissible, like selling, renting and lending; and prohibited, like usury, bribery, fraud, cheating, and anything that may prove to be detrimental to either one of the parties involved in a transaction.

Furthermore, the Sunna teaches us how to perform the acts of faith successfully, making it clear what things are desirable in the performance of such acts, and what things are undesirable. Besides, it incites the believer to strive towards attaining high moral standards by practising tolerance, maintaining close relations with relatives, being kind and generous to guests and neighbours, and by avoiding covetousness, hatred, envy and scheming.

Prophetic tradition came to explain the Qur’an and to make clear the precepts involved in it. Muslim scholars of yore worked hard in order to document and authenticate texts relevant to the Sunna. For this purpose, they elaborated an independent branch of study, very precise in its rules and conceptual apparatus, to enable Muslim jurists and legists to extrapolate from the Holy Book the general principles and basic rules of the Sharia. This resulted in the perfection of the structure of a true and tolerant Sharia that spells out in clear terms what duties pertain to the individual, and what obligations pertain to the community as a whole.

It is true that individual duties are relatively well-known and performed in a satisfactory manner; however, this is not the case for collective duties. In our view, these require particular attention, especially nowadays, for they have much to do with the strength and prestige of the Umma. It is our belief that the performance of collective duties is part and parcel of the performance of other acts of devotion.

On the basis of the Holy Qur’an and the Sunna, Muslim scholars have equally explicated the general principles and rules that govern the Muslim's behaviour.They have unanimously agreed on the necessity of abiding by the clear and explicit texts, leaving it to the experts who practise sound independent judgement, to derive specific rules from fundamental principles by applying the principle of analogy, especially in cases where it is clear that the derived rules and regulations are motivated by reasons having to do with the general fundamental principles. In such cases, scholars justify the derived rules by reference to textual evidence in the Qur’an, or to the Sunna, the essential foundations of which are summed up in the following maxims :

i) Conviction cannot be removed by doubt : This means that rules are reached and derived on a rational basis, involving formalization and verification. In this connection, scholars distinguish different levels of knowledge.

ii) Damage calls for repair : This is an interpretation of the Prophetic maxim : “laa darara wa laa diraar” (i.e. Let your deals be fair and square)(75). On the basis of this rule, Muslim scholars explained the different types of detrimental situations and classified them according to the degree of damage or loss involved in each case. In addition, they provided a list of the different types of common benefits to be achieved by amending each of the detrimental situations in question.

iii) Ends determine the means : (76) This rule is based on the Prophetic tradition : “Actions are determined by intentions ; and each individual shall be rewarded according to his intentions”(77). Though the explicit meaning of this statement concerns the acts of devotion and the intentions of the early Muslim migrants from Mecca to the Medina, its implications are relevant to a wide range of other actions, accidental as well as premeditated. For example, the case of a doctor who accidentally causes the death of a patient through an error in the treatment, is different from that of a murderer who kills a human being intentionally and unjustly. Though the result of the two acts is the same, the two cases differ in terms of intentionality.

God inspired many scholars who devoted their time and energy to the study of Prophetic tradition, which they preserved by codifying and simplifying it. Thus, the educator has only to select from the Hadith those relevant samples which suit his pedagogical purposes, focusing more on those traditions that can help consolidate the unity of the Umma and its solidarity.

The aim of such a programme is to enable the individual Muslim to have a clear idea about the teachings of the noble Sunna, as illustrated by examples from the Prophet's biography. Therefore, it would be useful, pedagogically speaking, to establish a link between the study of Prophetic tradition and the explanation of selected Quranic Surahs so that the learner can understand that the Sunna provides illustration for the Qur’an. This method will also help the student recall the contents of his Quranic lessons.

In using this approach, it is of extreme importance that the teacher select from the Sunna topics that have great explanatory relevance, and that he make sure that the selected traditions are sound and authentic, especially at the primary school level. For this reason, it is necessary to provide the learner, especially at the secondary school level, with the basic rules and concepts relevant to the study of Hadith so as to enable him to distinguish between authentic traditions, which are recorded in authoritative sources, and those traditions whose authenticity is weak or suspect, for obvious reasons.

The study of Hadith should also obey the principle of gradual progression. For instance, it would be desirable to start with those traditions that are relevant to individual duties, such as “cultic purity”, “prayer”, “Zakat”, “pilgrimage” and other acts of worship. Next should be studied those traditions that concern collective duties; that is, hadiths which specify the duties of the individual Muslim toward the Umma, such as “jihaad”, “acquisition of knowledge”, “imamate”, “visiting patients”, “enjoining right conduct” and “forbidding indecency”. Finally, are to be studied those traditions that have to do with “volunteering” and “desiderata” ; in particular, those which encourage works of supererogation, almsgiving, and all other works of charity.

In every section of these lessons, due attention should be given to taboos and interdictions, whether they concern matters of worship or the individual himself, such as those traditions that treat of major sins and other known grave offenses. Next come general interdictions that concern everybody and whose counterparts are collective duties. Basically, we refer to those hadiths which explain to the individual what acts are to be avoided in order not to do harm to the Umma. In the end, come those traditions which urge the individual to beware of obscure cases and suspicious situations, like those hadiths which prohibit the causing of harm(78), denying access to water surplus(79), protecting pasture(80) , and preventing a neighbour from planting a wooden peg in a wall that is not part of his property(81).

5.2.1.3. The Prophet's Biography

The Sunna of the Prophet (PBUH), which is part of the canonical law of Islam, addresses the human mind through a logic of justice and truth. It results in persuasion and belief. On the other hand, the Prophet's biography, which addresses the heart, through a language that combines idealism and sincerity, results in love and beneficence.

Talking about the Prophet's biography reminds the believer of those days and nights when the heaven was close to the earth, with the Holy Ghost shuttling between the two, lifting up the good deeds and kind words and returning with Quranic messages to be printed on the heart of the trustworthy Messenger. These were the days when :

The revelation flowed down in a continuous stream ;

And the slate and the upright pen trickling,

Like fresh water in a dream.

Reviving such memories fills the heart of the believer with peace and security in his spiritual life, making his attachment to the pure sources of his faith even stronger. And the stronger his attachment, the greater his desire to hear more of the Prophet's Hadith, as one poet put it :

You talked to me about them and increased my sorrow, O Saad !

But let me have more of your talk, please Saad.

The Prophet's biography constitutes a perennial source of spiritual wealth for Muslims. It illustrates God's love and care for mankind , to whom He sent a trustworthy Messenger, in the person of Muhammad, son of Abdullah (God bless and keep him), whom He sent to guide mankind to the right path, bringing glad tidings for those who believe, and warnings for those who disbelieve, and to establish high moral standards.

For this purpose, God made his Messenger's life story a good example for those who believe. Thus, even before he was selected to deliver the Message of God, Muhammad was Known among his people for his trustworthiness and his uprightness; then, as a Prophet, he preached the Unity of God, strove hard in order to make the divine law triumph, and to make justice and good prevail over injustice and evil. All these aspects of the Prophet's life constitute sublime examples which Muslims try to follow in their private life as well as in their conduct towards God and his creation.

The educator should select from the Prophet's biography authentic samples that are illustrative of the wisdom which characterizes the conduct of the infallible Prophet (PBUH); samples that show how he accepted the trust of the divine Mission, when God sent unto him His weighty Word; how he sustained all kinds of ill-treatment from the idolaters and persevered unwaveringly, in his Mission, in spite of all the harm incurred on him. They boycotted him and his followers in the valleys of Mecca, and even tried to prevent him from saying his prayers ; but his response to their actions was : “O God ! Forgive my people, for they know not”. He tried to preach to the people around Mecca, but they incited their insolent gangs to mock him and chase him away. The Prophet endured all this stoically, and never complained about his plight to any one but God. Then, God destined for him and for Islam supporters that pledged to defend him against such potent idolaters as Al-Ahmar and Al-Aswad. The allegiance of the Ansaar provided support for the religion of Allah, who gave humble converts leave to emigrate and the oppressed Muslims permission to fight back, promising to grant them victory. Then, God fulfilled His promise and defeated the clans by Himself. Thus, God granted His Messenger a clear and final victory whereby he accomplished the magnanimous Sharia of Allah, rendering infallible the Unity of his Umma, to which he has bequeathed the error-free Book, a revelation from the Most Wise, the Most Praiseworthy.

Indeed, the study of the Prophet's biography is one of the constant duties that should accompany every individual Muslim, from his early age to the last hour of his life.

5.2.2. Islamic Culture Programmes

Etymologically, the Arabic term “thaqaafa” (culture) is derived from the same base as the term “thiqaaf”, which refers to an instrument formerly used to straighten spears(82). Thus, the technical sense of the term “thaqaafa” is made clearer by the conventional sense of which it is an extension. Therefore, if we consider “thaqaafa” as a tool that plays a straightening role in the process of educating young Muslim generations, then the semantic scope of this term would include all forms of knowledge that serve the purpose of establishing the faith, and installing the habit of doing charitable deeds. In addition to this general aim, “culture” has a special educational role, the dimensions of which vary according to the natural variables of the Islamic Umma.

What matters here is that the basic educational and didactic concepts should derive from the constant principles of Islamic education, especially the Qur’an and the Sunna. Then, the so-called instrumental sciences, such as linguistics, history and literature, would constitute kinds of circles based on the fundamental matters, but contributing to them additional human dimensions so as to achieve harmony between truth, charity and beauty.

Thus, the cultured Muslim should in principle satisfy two requirements. On the one hand, he should possess accurate knowledge of the basic rules of the Sharia as spelt out in the Quranic texts and the Prophetic traditions. On the other hand, he should have the necessary knowledge and required training in the domain of worship and social interaction. Thus, he may learn as much as he can in terms of science and art. However, given that the domain of art is too large to be encompassed by one individual, it would, therefore, be necessary to make certain choices, taking into consideration such constraints as are imposed by environmental conditions and individual talents.

The cultivated Muslim may well need another language than Arabic, in order to widen the scope of his knowledge and to assimilate scientific facts which keep changing rapidly, especially outside the Islamic world. However, his acquisition of a second language, and consequently, of a foreign culture, makes it necessary for him to be aware of the following risks :

First, we notice that many Muslim intellectuals are seduced by non-Islamic civilizations. Soon afterwards, they start casting doubts on their own culture. Then, progressively, the newly adopted culture becomes a model for them, and they start imposing on the Arabo-Islamic culture criteria that are completely unrelated to it. In so doing, they try to show to the Islamic world that their imitation of the foreign is a kind of intellectual innovation. Finally, they try their best to impose their new ways on their dependents and clients.

In fact, this category of intellectuals do not know how to imitate. Consider, for instance, those orientalists who have written a great deal on Islam and on the Islamic and Arab worlds. We notice that, in all their writings, their primary concern is to remain faithful to their cultural tradition, and to preserve their cultural authenticity. Thus, they do not write in any language other than their own national languages. They also follow a methodology of their own, even when their ideological and philosophical denominations differ. The ultimate objective of their work is to serve and promote their own civilization, either by relating to it the wisdom and history of Islamic civilization or, alternatively, by trying to demonstrate, through the presentation of aspects of other civilizations and cultures, that what they have got is, by far, the best and the most accomplished. In fact, in their presentations of other civilizations and cultures, they do not hesitate to distort history and refute scientific facts.

Some Westernized Muslim intellectuals may also go so far in their fanaticism as to claim that the failure of Western civilization today is a sign of its inherent strength and endurance, claiming that it is the only civilization on earth that has even been able to put itself to the test and to declare its own bankruptcy before it goes through the process of regeneration, which will give it fresher energy and more vitality. Given this state of affairs, it is clear that, in our culture programmes, we should be paying careful attention to the views expressed by such Westernized intellectuals, who have adopted a non-Islamic cultural model.

Second, there is another category of intellectuals, who, in addition to their having studied Islamic culture in depth, are also familiar with certain foreign languages and cultures. The problem with these people is that they have combined the two cultures without being able to blend them in a manner which would enable them to enrich their own civilization through newly acquired scientific and literary knowledge, which would have given their own civilization more vitality. The position of these intellectuals is quite unstable, as they keep wavering between the two cultures, belonging neither here nor there.

It would be very unusual to hear a scholar like Abu Muhammad Ibn Hazm Al-Zaahiri say that “The Arabic language has no advantage over any other natural language”. This statement is made by the author in his Fusuul Al-Ihkaam fi Fusuul Al-Ahkaam (i.e. Precise Sections on Articles of Law), where he says(83) :

And some people said : “Arabic is the best of all languages, because the Qur’an was revealed in it” . ‘Ali (Ibn Abii Taalib) replied : ‘This is nonsense, for Allah, the Most Strong and the Most High, has informed us that He never sent to a people a messenger who did not speak their language”. In “The Angels” Surah (Verse 24), the Most High said : “And there is not a nation but a warner hath passed among them”. And in “The Poets” Surah (V. 196), He also said : “And lo ! it is in the Scriptures of the men of old”. Thus, the Word of God and His revelations have been sent down in many languages. For instance, God sent down the Torah, the Bible and the Book of Psalms in Hebrew, the language in which He spoke to Moses ; and He sent down the Parchments to Abraham (on whom be peace) in Syriac, which means that, in this respect, languages are equal.

It is true that God has sent down scriptures unto prophets and that each scripture was in the language of the messenger's own people. However, when the Qur’an was sent down in the Arabic language, the latter became the religious language for all Muslims. In fact, Muslim scholars are unanimous that the reading of the Qur’an is amply rewarded when it is done in the language in which it was initially revealed, namely the Arabic language. Also, pronunciation errors committed by non-Arab natives when they recite the Qur’an are excusable. Furthermore, God made the load lighter even for the native Arabs themselves by allowing them to read the Qur’an in seven different letters (or accents). Finally, the majority of Muslim scholars consider unacceptable the prayer of a Muslim who has not read the Qur’an with a correct Arabic accent.

Besides, without knowing the Arabic language, it would not be possible to grasp either the miraculous aspect of the Qur’an, which constitutes the most significant proof of Prophethood, or the directives of the Sharia and the rules and regulations which it entails. Also, given that the Sunna constitutes an illustration of the Qur’an, and since it involves utterances produced by the Arab Prophet, Muhammad (PBUH), it is obvious that the mastership of the Sunna depends on the mastership of the Arabic language.

For all this, the Muslim has no choice but to learn the Arabic language according to his abilities. And the minimum he can do in this regard is to study portions from the Qur’an and the Hadith, according to his competence and needs, though individual students can specialize in the study of the Arabic language and literature.

In this domain, too, programmes may differ from one country to another, depending on their cultural and geographical conditions. But educational authorities in Islamic countries should agree on certain guidelines and general principles that would help in the implementation of such programmes. In this regard, we suggest the following :

First, the teaching of the Arabic language should be based on the Holy Qur’an and the noble Prophetic tradition, in such a way that the texts to be studied in language lessons should be selected from Quranic Surahs and Prophetic traditions. Additional vocabulary items and grammatical structures can be used to explain and facilitate comprehension of the selected texts. In this way, the lesson will be linguistic and religious at the same time. When the student has advanced in the learning process, he will be able to invest in various domains of life the comprehension and communicative skills which he has acquired while studying the language of the Qur’an.

Second, use of different teaching methods and techniques concerning the students who are native speakers of Arabic, on the one hand, and the Muslim students who do not have a national language, on the other. Such techniques should be used for the essential purpose of correcting the students' pronunciation, through oral skills in order to train and enable them to articulate Arabic sentences correctly.

5.2.3. Science Programmes :

We have already reviewed some traditional classifications of scientific disciplines which, it should be noted, were established by Muslim scholars at a time when scientific and technological progress was relatively limited and the discrepancies between Islamic and non-Islamic nations were not great in this domain. Indeed, at the time when such taxonomies were established, the Islamic nation used to enjoy a universally recognized supremacy in certain scientific domains such as Mathematics, Astronomy, Medicine, Maritime studies and navigation techniques.

Nowadays, we are living in an era in which technological knowledge is booming and constantly progressing further at an amazing speed. Thus, after the industrial revolution of the 19th century, there came, after the two world wars, a nuclear revolution, with all the dangers that it involves for the future of humanity. This revolution was soon followed by an other one in the domain of communications technology with the issuing wonderful applications in the domains of space explorations and mass media.

At a time when the Superpowers are seeking cooperation agreements in their effort to occupy celestial bodies, the Islamic nation can no longer afford to remain indifferent to, or isolated from, these overwhelming forces which threaten to leave it permanently in a weak position among nations, unless it sets out to study this universe which the Almighty God has made serviceable to Muslims, pursuant to what is stated in His Holy Qur’an : “And (He) hath made of service unto you whatsoever is in the heavens and whatsoever is in the earth” (XLV : 13).

In the section on “The Objectives of Islamic Education”, we have pointed out that the study of those scientific disciplines which contribute to the welfare and strength of the nation is considered from the religious point of view as a collective duty. For instance, if, in the entire nation, there is one village that does not have a general practitioner, it becomes a duty not only of the village in question, but of the entire nation, to study Medicine. And the entire nation will be absolved of the sin only when some of its members have performed this particular duty, which is necessary for safeguarding human life. The same rule applies in case there is a shortage in Engineers. In this case, the Umma should study engineering because it is necessary for improving the people's living conditions in terms of housing, electricity, water supplies, etc. The same goes for all other types of professions that are required by the society.

It is not our purpose here to provide detailed programmes for the study of these scientific disciplines which involve many different specialties. Rather, our aim is simply to provide a brief definition of some basic principles that can serve as guidelines in the setting up of such programmes.

Principle One : As is the case in all religious observances, the elaboration of scientific programmes counts as a collective duty such that its neglect by the Umma counts as a sin, and its performance by any member of the Umma counts as a good deed deserving of reward.

Principle Two : In order for careers advice to be meaningful, due consideration should be given to students' talents and aptitudes, which should be assessed by means of appropriate pedagogical tests.

Principle Three : Early specialization should be the norm to shorten the training period, while special consideration should be given to the universal nature of knowledge, as will be explained below.

Principle Four : Professionalism should be considered the most urgent type of collective duty, as it ensures prosperity for the individual and his family, and contributes to the welfare of the Umma as a whole.

Since professionalism is a form of collective duty, the Umma should strive to be at the head of the powerful nations so as to ensure unshakable strength of all Muslims. The route to this goal necessarily passes through the study of natural science and the acquisition of modern skills and technologies. If it is the case that individual acts of worship are among the constant requirements of Islamic education, it is also the case that acquisition of worldly science is a vital requirement for the duration of the Umma and the glory of Islam.

Muslims today live in a situation characterized by a huge disparity between them and the others. In fact, Muslim states belong to the so-called Third World, and have to endure the scientific and technological domination of the industrialized nations, in spite of the fact that they have considerable wealth in terms of energy and human resources. But a profitable exploitation of the resources available in Islamic countries requires rational and systematic organization so that the wealth in question can bring more benefit not only to those that possess it, but also to the Umma as a whole. Although this matter depends on political will, we are nevertheless convinced that education can play a crucial role in bringing about mutual trust and driving deep the idea of Islamic solidarity, which will ultimately influence political decisions.

Self-confidence and pride in the religion of Allah are two important factors that can contribute greatly to the Umma's revival, for Allah says in His Holy Qur’an : “Do not slacken, therefore, nor grieve; you will have the upper hand if you are believers” (III : 139). The command is intended for the Umma to master what it can in terms of force in order to further the cause of Islam, and to make Truth and Justice prevail.

It is worth observing, in this connection, that, in the nineteenth century, the industrial revolution gave non-Muslim peoples tremendous power which they used for the purpose of submitting the Islamic world to their colonial domination. But today, the industrial revolution is evolving in the domains of modern technologies and application of genetics in the domain of agriculture and food production. These new developments make it possible for the Islamic Umma to catch up with the progress of modern science.

In spite of the fact that the Eastern and Western blocks have tremendous power and influence, as a result of their advancement in the domain of exact sciences and their skill in the domain of sophisticated technology, it is still possible for the Muslim Umma to recover its strength and occupy a position of power among the great nations of the world. But this requires that a number of conditions be satisfied, especially the following :

i) The idea of one united Umma, as insisted upon in the Holy Qur’an, should be by-passed, and a minimum of coordinated cooperation among Muslim peoples should be accepted, so that the potentials of individual states and citizens can be made of service to the benefit of the Umma as a whole. This means that it is absolutely necessary to ban all the differences and conflicts that exist between the various forces that constitute the Islamic Umma.

ii) The necessity to be convinced that imitating the West (or the East), in the sense of marching behind it, will not enable the Islamic world to reach the same level of technological development, because the follower will always remain behind the followed. Besides, the West itself has just started its scientific march and is still investing the surplus of its wealth in scientific research in various fields of knowledge while we notice that the financial resources available in the Islamic world are spent on other matters than scientific research. Therefore, it is necessary for the Islamic world to concentrate on a long term educational programme in order to achieve the goals that it has set for itself within a framework of cooperation and unity.

iii) The necessity to devise and elaborate accurate scientific programmes in accordance with a rigorously studied strategy aiming to discover young talents, to develop them, and to provide them with necessary and appropriate facilities and adequate working conditions to ensure their success.

iv) The necessity to rely on the Almighty God, and to have the firm conviction that He never fails those who support Him, and that to work for the power and glory of the Umma is to comply with His Divine Order. Modern history abounds with examples showing that when a nation defines its goals, gets appropriately equipped, and unites energies and efforts, it always manages, by the will of God, to achieve its entended goals. Who would have believed that Japan, which was completely destroyed by war in the middle of this century, would become a major economic and industrial power, challenging the most powerful nations of the world ?

Only when the conditions above are satisfied shall we be able and ready to meet the challenge described below by a contemporary Arab thinker :

Concerning modern science, it has - in our present time - nothing to do with us, though in the past we played a significant role in its development, and contributed to the progress of humanity. Thus, although we have established in our countries universities, institutes, and research centres, and have studied science both at these national institutions and abroad ; and despite the fact that we have obtained the highest degrees in various fields, and some individual scholars have even excelled in certain domains of applied science both at national and international levels - yet, on the whole, science is still alien to us. That is because we have not created the adequate environment where science can grow and flourish; we have not prepared the appropriate ground or soil for it so that it can strike roots, ramify and branch out. From the very start, we got it wrong; we did not study the theoretical background and philosophy of science; nor did we use the experimental method to test and verify the validity of various scientific theories as well as their applications.

All this would be possible only if we made use of the same methods and means as we ourselves knew them at the beginning of our civilization, and which Europe knew at the beginning of its renaissance. These same methods and means which were elaborated in the land of Islam before they were further developed in Europe”(84).

The use of an experimental approach should not be taken to mean the adoption of so-called “positivist doctrine”, which was propagated by Auguste Comte in the 19th century. The consequences of Comte's doctrine transcend the experimental method because the doctrine in question does not, as a matter of principle, seek to understand or explain the causes or essence of things, which, in our view, causes young generations to turn away from religious thought and, consequently, prevents them from knowing the Creator of the Universe. Indeed, one of the consequences of this doctrine is that it leads to the denial and rejection of the invisible and the supernatural, while we know that a believer is someone who believes in divine secrets and prophesies, and observes the ethics of science. In this regard, an eminent western author stated that, “Unless it is accompanied by moral conscience, science can lead to spiritual destruction”. For Muslim scientists, moral consciousness consists in the strict observance of Islamic moral standards in the acquisition of science as well as its application.

It should be admitted, however, that the rapid socio-economic changes, the fast developments in the fields of science and technology, as well as their various applications in increasingly different fields, in addition to extensive cultural and informational exchanges, etc., are likely to make it impossible for the old educational systems to keep the course of knowledge under control, to adjust to its fast developments, and to ensure the kind of moral upbringing that is required from Islamic education.

The contents and methods of the educational systems inherited from the colonial era fail on two essential accounts. On the one hand, they do not suit the specific characteristics of fundamental Islamic education. On the other hand, they cannot keep up with the fast-changing course of modern techniques and methods. As a result, a number of graduates, who were educated within these systems, have been lost. Being intellectual prisoners of specific philosophical and cultural models, these scholars found themselves unable to come to terms with, or adjust to, the socio-cultural realities of their respective peoples.

Besides, their limited and inadequate scientific training denied them the ability to understand or assimilate the facts relevant to the development of their peoples. In addition, whenever one of these scholars achieved excellence in a given scientific domain, he was offered the irresistible opportunity to immigrate and settle in the country where his specialty was most advanced.This phenomenon occurred repetitively to the extent that it has become a problem in itself, and is now commonly referred to as the “brain drain” problem.

Many people believe that the key to this problem resides in the creation of an adequate environment where these eminent modern scholars can work in total freedom. We do not know whether this means that we should change our values and moral standards so that we can keep such brains. It is our belief that the treatment of the problem should start in the early years of formal education. If the start is good, the result is bound to be good. The starting point consists in adhering to the principles and values of Islam, to dislike anything else, to consider life in this world as a passage to life in the hereafter, to embrace the ethics of Muslims in loving one's parents and one's country, and also in being proud of the Islamic Umma. After this, the Muslim will regard competition for wealth and fame as a mere futility.

This, however, should not be construed as a condemnation of the search for the acquisition of wealth by lawful means and methods, or of the desire to gain respect and recognition through excellence and seriousness at work, or through acquisition of new skills. On the contrary, the individual Muslim is required to be proficient in his work and to widen his horizons as much as he can. Likewise, it is the duty of the Umma to help and encourage its outstanding children, who, in turn, will contribute to the Umma's glory with their individual talents.

It is also the Umma's duty to cultivate awareness of the necessity to preserve life on earth until God inherits it. Indeed, the man's role as God's substitute on earth entails many responsibilities, chief among which is the preservation of the earth itself by preventing practices that are destructive to its environment, by protecting its natural resources, and by avoiding excessive and wasteful use of its wealth. Islam has urged economy in the the use of water and prohibited the cutting down of trees and the destruction of cultures and civilizations.

The individual Muslim today is required to undertake a scientific study of the state of our planet and to be fully cognizant of the means whereby life on its surface can be preserved. What will result from such a study in terms of awareness of ecological effects, whether natural or caused by man, should lead the society to adopt a certain kind of behaviour or attitude towards environmental issues.

International cooperation in this domain is vital, for it concerns the preservation of life. When industrialists pollute the atmosphere by releasing excessive toxic gazes, the harm from such practices will not affect only the country or town responsible for such evil. One clear example of this consists of the range of dangerous radiation that followed the Chernobyl disaster in the (former) Soviet Union, and which threatened the lives of many people. Furthermore, scientists now fear the disintegration of the ozone layer which surrounds the earth and prevents solar radiation from reaching it and destroying life on its surface.

In addition to the greenhouse effect, the earth is facing other threats, consisting essentially of the fast spreading of the phenomena of desertification and deforestation, which threaten many people with starvation and cause many rural areas to become completely depopulated. Therefore, considering the importance of the problem, solidarity at the global level is required to combat these phenomena in a systematic manner.

Since the resources available on earth cannot keep up with the increasing needs of a continuously growing population, scientists today advise that research be conducted for the purpose of finding new ways of exploiting sea resources profitably. But the seas themselves are threatened by pollution caused by toxic substances that are dumped into the oceans on a daily basis, notably hydrocarbon substances and the various kinds of solid and liquid waste produced by cities and industrial units.

Likewise, the existence of tremendous stocks of nuclear weapons which are proliferated all over the world, constitutes a permanent danger, threatening the entire humanity with death and total destruction. The nuclear states should, therefore, give up the logic of “balance of terror” and choose for the inhabitants of the earth a logic of peaceful coexistence and mutual understanding, as these states are themselves convinced that such weapons are deadly not only to those against whom they are used, but also to those who use them, at least in the long run. In fact, these weapons destroy even the reason for which they were initially used.

All this invites every Muslim to hold tight to the Prophetic principle which states that “The earth is a sweet meadow in which Allah has appointed you as his substitutes to see how you would manage it”(85) .

Speaking of education, it is important that school programmes do not consist of sets of closed subjects. Instead, all the subjects constituting a programme of study should form one cohesive and coherent whole, so that the student is able to perceive the relations among them. Otherwise, he will simply record them in his memory as disparate pieces with nothing to link them together.

The truth of the matter is that knowledge is a cognitive unit, perceived by the human mind as a unified whole. Therefore, if the individual learner manages to grasp one part of a problem in the appropriate manner, then, through his ability to make generalizations, to conceptualize and to establish analogies, he can perceive the covert relations that hold between the other aspects of the problem. Indeed, if it were not possible to uncover such scientific relations, it would not have been possible for any scholar to contribute to the progress of science through deduction and invention.

The development of the student's comprehensive thinking will help resolve a serious pedagogical problem that faces teachers today, namely striking a balance between general studies and specialized studies. Thus, if career advising required, for instance, the training of a physician in one specific area of specialization, then it would be the duty of those responsible for his training to begin by teaching him some basic and general principles, which would include the following :

i) Religious education, which also involves the ethics of his profession

ii) Islamic jurisprudence, which clearly defines for him his job and puts at his disposal solutions to problems resulting from the development of science.

ii) Linguistics, which is bound to help him understand other people and interact with them efficiently. But this is not all, as it is also his duty to have a fair grounding in psychology, and even in geography including the effects of the climate on the organisms which he endeavours to rectify and treat.

Thus, unless all these facts are taken into account, there is good reason to fear that the specialist, in any domain, may become like a robot that executes specific tasks according to given facts which might not be valid in all cases.

Centuries ago, Muslim scholars became aware of these interdisciplinary relations and recorded them in their books. For example, in his Jaami Al-Ilm Al-Shariif, Abu Omar Ibn Abdulbarr notes that“The study of medicine seeks to understand the natural characteristics of the earth, including its plants, waters and minerals, in terms of their substances, tastes and odors, in addition to their basic constituent elements. It also studies the characteristics of animals, the peculiarities of their organisms and instincts, organic anomalies and epidemics, the characteristics of times and countries, the benefits of motion and stillness, types of medication, and finally, friendliness and diplomacy”.

Translated into more up-to-date terminology, the excerpt above provides a clear idea about Ibn Abdulbarr's conception of a Medical studies programme, which, in the author's view, should include the following :

1- Natural characteristics of the earth, its plants, waters, and minerals : All these matters are studied in pharmaceutics, or the science of preparing and dispensing drugs, and defining their nutritional characteristics ;

2- Substances of the earth, their tastes and odors : Knowledge of these elements is necessary for the analysis of chemical composites and their characteristics, and also for distinguishing those which are useful for organisms from those which are harmful ;

3- Knowledge of fundamental constituent elements : Ancient medicine made use of the theory according to which the four basic humours of man (i.e. black bile, phlegm, gall, and blood) were determined by four fundamental elements of the cosmos, namely, earth, air, water, and fire. Although modern science does not rely on this theory, it nevertheless confirms the influence of the environment on people, to the extent that doctors use water with therapeutic characteristics to cure certain illnesses, and recommend a change of air for patients suffering from certain types of allergy.

4- Animal characteristics, or biology : This has become one of the most important fields of modern science. Scientists involved in this domain are particularly interested in discovering the secrets of life, starting from the living cell in the simplest form of life, and ending with the study of man, who has the most complex constitution. This scientific discipline involves many branches which have to do essentially with the study of mechanisms of hereditary transmission and variation of organismal characteristics.

5- Characteristics of bodies and instincts : This includes anatomy, the study of organic functions and their relations to the behaviour and conduct of living beings.

6- Organs, anomalies and diseases : This involves the study of the various types of anomalies and diseases that affect the body, and which medicine tries to treat and cure.

7- Peculiarities of times and countries : This refers to the influence of locations and seasons on the nature and humour of man and his ability to adjust himself to new environments. Such environmental influences are observable in the colour of the skin, tone of the voice, and exposure to certain diseases. Some of these environment influences affect health. For instance, many people cannot live in high altitude areas, whereas others cannot live in areas with high levels of humidity, etc.

8- Benefits of motion and stillness : Benefits of “motion” include gymnastics for the purpose of developing the body or re-educating the muscles or organs that have lost their functional capacity due to paralysis or birth trauma, whereas the benefits of “stillness” include physical relaxation and the fixing of organs in specific positions in order to set fractured bones, etc.

9- Types of medication and treatment : These are basic in the study of medicine and do not, therefore, need any further explanation.

10- Friendliness and diplomacy : These include psychoanalysis and the use of appropriate means and methods in preparing patients to respond positively to medical treatment in order to speed up their recovery.

In implementing any programme of scientific studies, we should keep in mind the necessity to keep abreast with new scientific developments and their implications for the future of humanity. Indeed, newly developed technologies have dramatically changed not only scientific facts, but also the traditional relations between scientific subjects. Currently, there is a new revolution taking place at the level of systems of information, as a result of the progress achieved in the domains of biological studies, communications and information studies, and data processing.

Muslim scholars should keep an eye on these developments, for more than one reason. Firstly, the current scientific revolution might provide the Islamic Umma with a short-cut to achieving a level of technical development which would contribute to its liberation from technological dependence on the West, provided that Muslim scholars master every new development in these scientific fields.

Secondly, this kind of detective work will enable the Islamic Umma to avert the harmful effects of technological progress that constitute a potential threat to the future of mankind. Such evil effects do not reside solely in the production and proliferation of such arms of mass destruction as nuclear weapons, chemical weapons and biological weapons, but also in the implications of laboratory experiments conducted by some specialists in the domain of genetics. There is no doubt that some of these experiments are extremely useful, especially in the domain of agriculture; however, it is also true that some scientists have misused and abused such experiments for perverse purposes. For example, some of these scientists went so far as to manipulate genetic bases in order to change the natural size of certain animal species, such as the creation of a kind of dog much smaller than a cat.

5.2.4. Islamic Education and Sport

Being extremely popular among young people and the general public, sport is given great importance by governments, because it provides them with the opportunity to organize young generations and train them to improve their capabilities and achieve excellence in international competitions, which gives their countries good publicity. This is why we notice that heads of state usually sponsor sports activities, found sporting clubs and provide them with financial as well as technical means to the extent that the money spent by governments on sport represents a substantial part of the national budget.

Youth enjoy sport not because it is fun, but also because it provides them with the opportunity to achieve glory and fame by participating in international competitions. Success on such occasions means a lot to young people. It is a moment of intense joy and excitement for some, and of ecstasy and intoxication for others. Many athletes train hard and make desperate efforts in order to achieve supremacy and fame by winning medals and titles in various sports championships, knowing that this would bring them great wealth, especially when they have established themselves as top-level athletes.

Concerning the general public, we notice that they are primarily interested in sport as a form of entertainment, for they enjoy watching sport games and competitions. However, this interest may develop into a kind of hobby, in which case the public becomes divided into groups of fans, each of which becoming interested in one specific type of sport. Then, the groups split up into camps, each supporting a given team. Competition between the different teams may grow so tense as to generate feelings of hostility between their respective supporters. Sometimes, when nationalism and other political considerations interfere with sport, this hostility may intensify to a degree where it can degenerate into violent clashes and riots in which many people die and many others get injured.

Nonetheless, the setting up of many national and international organizations as well as many regional and continental confederations for the purpose of promoting sport, has given sport a universal dimension. Thus, certain sportive events, such as Olympic games, for instance, have become the object of fierce competition among all nations, which seek qualification through participation in memorable international meetings organized for this purpose every year.

A consideration of this activity from an Islamic perspective suggests that sport can be beneficial, provided that its practice obeys the principles of Islam and its ethics.

Islam urges the individual Muslim to build a strong body, to preserve his physical and mental health, and to improve his mental and physical capacities. Also, Islam enjoins competition for good deeds, and allows for a certain degree of competition in certain domains of sport. The Prophet himself (PBUH) did not only take part in certain contests, but he also commanded the teaching of shooting, wrestling, swimming, and horsemanship.

After the Prophet's era, many complex events and developments occurred, and certain new practices appeared and became institutionalized under new circumstances. Therefore, given this state of affairs, the authorities in charge of Islamic education have the responsibility of scrutinizing these new practices from the point of view of the Sharia. There is no doubt that Muslim scholars will find that while some of these practices are compatible with the spirit of Islam and its teachings, others are clearly not so compatible; and they may even discover certain borderline cases that are inherently unclear, falling somewhere in between. The following is a sample of relevant questions that need to be asked in this regard : Given that the Qur’an forbids that people throw themselves into perilous situations, what then is the position of Islam concerning wrestling, boxing, car racing, and all the games that can lead to the death of some of those who practice them ?

We are inclined to believe that scholars do - and will - advise people to avoid violent sports that are harmful to the human being and to keep away from those undesirable contests and competitions that lead to discord and enmity. But, on the other hand, they recommend and encourage physical exercise which strengthens the body, stimulates the mind, ensures for youth fun and excitement, and gives them the opportunity to enjoy innocent competition that enables them to develop the spirit of excellence and the desire to do better, to learn how to admire those above them without envying them, and to be fair to those beneath them without despising them.

5.2.5. Woman Education

The issue of woman's education and woman's role in modern society has become a source of controversy and disagreement among scholars and certain politicians. The difference of opinion concerns not the education of woman, but rather the methods and conditions of her education, on the one hand, and the kind of professions she can exercise after she has completed her education, on the other.

Some scholars believe that it should be enough for the woman to learn what is necessary for her to perform her religious duties properly such as praying, fasting, etc., because, they argue, if she says her prescribed prayers, and does her fasting, and protects her vulva, she will enter the Paradise from any door she wants.

According to this category of scholars, the woman, provided she's made to understand that it is her duty to settle in her home, should in principle be allowed to learn that which will help her to manage her home efficiently and to bring up her children appropriately, in addition to exercising certain indoor activities such as weaving, knitting, and the like.

Other scholars, by contrast, cite the following statement, which they attribute to the Prophet (PBUH) :“Teach them weaving” and “The Light” Surah. These scholars argue that the veil is not restricted to the Prophet's wives, that the woman in general epitomizes temptation and deficiency, and that the Sunna has perpetually put her under the protection of a tutor or husband, who should cater for her needs and care for her. Therefore, they consider that women do not need much education, nor do they need to have a profession in order to earn a living.

Still a third category of scholars argue that women are still sisters of men, with whom they are equal in many rights and duties, religious as well as social. These scholars base their argument on a number of facts, including : (a) the active part which the Prophet's female Companions (may God be pleased with them all) played in jihaad, treating the wounded among Muslim fighters, and offering help and support to the combatants; (b) the role of the Mothers of the Faithful (i.e. the Prophet's wives), especially Aisha, Um Salama, and Hafsa, daughter of Omar (may God be pleased with them all), who distinguished themselves in the domain of delivering formal legal opinions and explicating rules and statutes of the Sunna ; (c) Muslim women used to attend lectures ; and the Prophet reserved one day a week for them to attend sermons and lectures. During the rule of the Emir of the Faithful, ‘Omar Ibn Al-Khattaab (may God be pleased with him), women were allotted a special row inside the Mosque ; and, as was pointed out earlier in this work, one of the women would stand up and argue with Caliph Omar over the issue of increasing the dowry, supporting her argument by quoting the Quranic verse : “And if you desire to take a wife in place of another and you have given one of them a treasure, take nothing from it” (IV : 20), which made Omar recognize that he was wrong and the woman was right.

These scholars agree with the “conservative” ones on the necessity of protecting the woman's chastity and her feminine characteristics against anything that might be incompatible with her natural function as a mother and a spouse, allowing that, within this framework she can take any responsibility which is not forbidden her by Islam.

It seems that the best course to be followed regarding this matter is not to deprive the woman from education ; nor should she be denied the right to exercise any permissible profession. However, she should be given appropriate advice concerning programmes and conditions of study so as to prepare her to play her role in society without exposing her to the risks of promiscuity.

There is no doubt that we are all aware of the important role that women play in certain specific professional domains such as education, scientific research, medicine, pharmacy, and commerce. Indeed, it is this kind of career orientation that will make of the Muslim Umma a society which is complete, fully functional, and giving everyone of its members their rights in accordance with the principles of the perennial Sharia.

5.2.6. Islamic Education and the Mass Media

Communication has become one of the most predominant features of our modern era. Therefore, the individual Muslim is required to deal with it according to the principles of Islamic education. It is a fact of life nowadays that radio broadcasts invade the ear at anytime and everywhere, and television broadcasts invade every city and town, as well as many villages and rural areas. Evaluation of means of permanent communication indicates that the media invasion is spreading at overwhelming speed, making of every single human being its intended target.

It is true that the contents of radio and television programmes vary considerably. They may be good programmes, informative or instructive, scientific or philosophical in character; or they may be bad programmes, intended to mislead and spread evil. Both useful and harmful programmes are presented in the form of news programmes, cultural programmes, or entertainment programmes.

The educator's task in this regard consists in providing guidance for the young generations to enable them to distinguish between the good programmes, which deserve to be pursued, and the evil programmes, which should be avoided. The only means available to the educator in this domain consists in preparing card indexes that spell out the general rules to be observed in using the mass media. In this section, we do not claim that we will list all the relevant rules, for this requires practical studies as well as legal investigations of individual cases. Rather, what we intend to do here is simply to provide a set of general principles that can help in categorizing most of the issues that are relevant to the media in an attempt to define the position of Islamic education concerning each of them.

At the outset, we should admit that it is virtually impossible for the individual Muslim to remain indifferent to, or unaffected by, the various movements and currents that characterize the world today. It is true that we are living in an era wherein it would be safer for the believer to flee with his faith and seek refuge in mountains and valleys, where he can safely look after his sheep, far away from these sweeping currents that threaten to cause his loss both in this world and in the hereafter. However, if isolation can ensure happiness and safety for the individual, it certainly will not serve the interest of the Muslim society, or ensure its salvation. Therefore, it is absolutely necessary to enter the battle ground of modern life, and to join the war against anti-religious currents. This battle is part and parcel of the greater holy war (al-jihaad al-akbar) which the Prophet (PBUH) talked about. This jihaad requires three necessary elements, namely fortification, defense, and attack.

5.2.6.1. Fortification

True monotheism is the Islamic fortification which provides protection against the evils and mischiefs of the mass media. This reminds us of the holy Muslim tradition (hadith qudsi)* : “There in no God save Allah is My Fortress, and whoever enters My Fortress is safe from My Punishment”.

True monotheism is not a difficult matter, because belief in the Unity of God, the Sole Creator of the universe, is something quite normal and acceptable to the sound mind. Thus, the youth, by virtue of their natural disposition, are prepared to believe in the Unity of God. However, it is important that the ideas that are meant to be imprinted on the fresh minds should involve the teaching of the true faith and absolute belief in the Unity of God on the basis of evidence from the Qur’an as well as from the true Prophetic tradition, bearing in mind the following facts : (a) The Holy Qur’an includes some revelations which are clear and explicit in their meaning, and some others which are allegorical; (b) The clear and explicit revelations constitute the main substance of the Scripture; (c) Those in whose heart is doubt pursue, forsooth, that which is allegorical. Given these facts, the educator should resort to the explanations provided by those scholars who have a firm grounding in knowledge so as to be able to distinguish between the clear revelations and the allegorical ones in order to establish in the student's mind a kind of monotheism that is sound, true, and clear.

When this faith has been firmly established in the rising generations' mind, it becomes a conviction so firm and strong that it cannot be shaken by any heretic influence, whether it originates from the mass media or from those who engage in superstitious and perverse practices. That is because belief in the Unity of God is the principal fortification which the individual Muslim resorts to for protection against temptation, misguidance, and error. But fortification alone is not enough, for it needs to be sustained by a permanent defense line to resist assaults from the enemies of Islam and its opponents.

5.2.6.2. Defense

The believer's defense consists in turning his face to God, and seeking refuge in Him at every moment, for, the closer the human being gets to God, the stronger his faith becomes, and God Himself takes charge of his defense, as is explicitly stated in His Holy Book : “Allah will certainly defend those who believe” (XXII : 38), “Allah strengthens those who believe with the Word that is firmly established, both in the hither life and in the hereafter” (XIV : 27); and also in the Holy tradition : “My servant persists in getting closer and closer to Me through works of supererogation until I love him; and if I love him, I become his sense of hearing, his eyesight ...”(86).

Turning to God in order to secure His defense entails consistent commitment, both in principle and in practice, on the part of the believer, to comply with what is prescribed and to avoid what is proscribed, in addition to trying his best to keep away from all things that are suspicious lest he become like the shepherd who risks his own life by leading his sheep to graze near the lion's din.

The educator will not have accomplished his mission unless he has succeeded in impressing this line of conduct upon the young student to a point where the latter is capable of observing the divine Commandments in all his activities, from dawn to dusk, in a permanent manner, like unceasing rain, acting with care and caution, with optimism rather than pessimism, seeking to understand, rather than to challenge religion because whoever challenges religion shall be vanquished. Meanwhile, he should be perfectly aware of his obligations toward himself and toward his family and relatives; and, in performing such obligations, he should be seeking to secure an advantage in this world, and another in the hereafter.

If the student persists in turning his face to God in this manner, while availing himself of Prophetic guidance, he will be able to defend his faith and to confront modern issues and problems with confidence, and deal with them calmly and wisely. As his faith increases with God-inspired peace of mind, his desire to do good deeds also increases; and he will continue to worship his Creator and to serve his Muslim Umma until he joins the rank of those who are defended by God and sustained with His firmly established Word.

Enlightenment derived from Prophetic guidance will provide the believer with criteria on the basis of which he can take sound decisions concerning such problems as are posed by media invasion. Take, for example, the case of someone who has a television set at home. Let us assume that circumstances make it impossible for him to avoid watching it. What he should do in this case is to protect himself against the evils and mischiefs involved in television programmes by consolidating his faith, especially when he is watching programmes that are not consistent or compatible with the principles of Islam. In this case, the individual Muslim should follow God's advice : “Say : Allah. Then leave them to their play of cavilling” (VI : 91).

Concerning those television programmes which are commonly called “artistic varieties”, and which consist of songs, plays and so on; their case depends on the extent to which they agree or disagree with the provisions of Islamic law. Indeed, Muslim theologians, both ancient and modern, have discussed the question of “audition” (samaa) and explained the provisions and rules pertaining to it.

Thus, if it is the case that accommodation and the lifting of restrictions constitute the fundamental bases of Prophetic guidance, it is nonetheless true that most of the shows presented on television, at the cinema, and in theatre, are inconsistent with the teachings of the Qur’an, which forbid exhibitionism in all its forms and enjoin decency and pudence, which are considered as a branch of faith. The very learned Mauritanian writer, Al-Mukhtaar Ibn Haamidun, has provided an excellent description of the so-called “artistic varieties” in a poem which is very funny and entertaining on the surface, but extremely serious and critical in gist :

What matters now is the content of the film, not the product of the pen;

Fun and nonsense, rather than rules and wisdom.

A programme enjoying a wide audience which

Excels at it, and whose horizons keep widening.

It is their verb, their nominative subject of

Conversation ; it is their talk and their word.

For each gathering of this grammar there is a school which

Admits no exception, be it father, brother, or in-law,

Or sound feminine plural ; for it is a school where

The singer of the brides harmoniously

Concords with the beautiful maidens.

It is a school whose screen is watched by the blind,

And whose sound is heard by the deaf.

Not only the horse, the night and the desert know it,

But also the sword, the spear, the parchment and the pen.

The masters of art have for it special technique and

A decoration admired by both the Arabs and the Persians.

But it is a school without a Zin Al-Abidiin in it ;

That's why the family, the husband, and the wife loathe it.

In dealing with television programmes and the mass media in general, the Muslim educator should make of the defense of Islam and its teachings his top priority. He should avoid not only that which is forbidden or excessively permissive, but anything that is suspect, especially in artistic programmes which are produced by countries that do not abide by Islamic directives. Indeed, the Muslim's defense system is a kind of self-censure which he imposes on himself as part of a strategy destined to ensure straight conduct in life. This strategy is first acquired through education before it becomes part of the student's natural disposition. At this stage, the student's defense system is powerful enough to make him spontaneously hate anything that is not consistent with his religion, to a degree where he could be fit for the next stage, namely the attack, by which I mean his aptitude to undertake missionary work and to participate in reforming the Islamic society.

These qualifications would enable him to go beyond the stage of combating corrupt media currents to the next stage where he can lead a reformist movement, using the same tools and means that are exploited by the enemies of Islam. Then, the mass media, which are used to diffuse anti-Islamic education, can be used to broadcast religious instruction, culture, and spiritual guidance. Such programmes should not be limited to the teaching of religious duties alone, but should include all that which may be useful to the believer in the hither life and in the hereafter.What this indicates is that mass media are neither good nor evil in themselves, but, rather, it is the use to which they are put, as well as the contents of their programmes, that determine their role. They are good if they are used for good purposes; and they are evil if they are used for evil purposes.

Being aware of the importance of the media, Muslim scholars involved in the Islamic Call (Dawa) have devised ways of using this mighty weapon efficiently. For this purpose, they have established in Islamic universities as well as in Islamic organizations in charge of the Islamic Call, a number of departments specialized in the study of what is now conventionally called “Islamic media”. Application of the results of the studies carried out within such departments has led to the creation of broadcasting systems, radio and television programmes, and newspapers and magazines, all specialized in the propagation of the Islamic Call. In addition, associations and confederations have been set up for the purpose of devising the best ways and means possible to promote the Islamic Call.There is no doubt that all these efforts have contributed largely to the increasing of religious awareness and Islamic culture.

However, despite its diffusiveness, this activity is still characterized by two dominant features, namely individualism and specialization. In our view, this is due, on the one hand, to the absence of a clear and well-defined strategy for efficient Islamic information, and, on the other hand, to the lack of adequate coordination, both at the denominational and the geographical levels, among the various groups and individuals working in this field. This in turn accounts for the fact that the results obtained so far do not correspond to the amount of effort made at the level of specialized bodies and organizations.

5.2.6.3. The Offensive : Missionary Work

This is certainly a stage that requires special qualifications and capabilities, the most important of which are solid fortification through strong faith, powerful defense through strict uprightness, and the acquisition of means of education and spiritual guidance. Besides, in order for anyone to be qualified to do Islamic missionary work, he should satisfy the following necessary conditions : First, he should be a model in himself and in his behaviour; second, he should be credible and reliable in both his knowledge and his education third, he should epitomize wisdom and judiciousness in religious teaching and spiritual guidance.

5.3. Methods

Explanatory and illustrative methods are numerous and varied, but they all aim to achieve the same objective, namely to develop awareness, comprehension, and the ability to perform. These three processes are clearly illustrated by the following Prophetic tradition : “God will make him blossom who hears my hadith, understands it, and then transmits it in its original version.”(87).

5.3.1. Hearing and Understanding

Learning begins with hearing. This process drew the attention of Muslim scholars since the dawn of Islam. Consequently, they have studied it thoroughly, established its rules and conditions, and applied them in their study of Hadith and Fiqh. Indeed, the fact that Muslim scholars paid great attention to Hearing is clearly illustrated by the importance they attached to memorization.

The second step in the hearing process is “awareness”, which consists in receiving the message through hearing and realizing its meanings. In this connection, a Muslim scholar, namely Imaam Maalik (May God have mercy upon him), used to say :“I realized in this Mosque (meaning the Prophet's mosque at the Medina) seventy virtues which, if I were to ask the earth to rain for their sake, it would rain. But I have never learned a thing from these people, for this is not their domain”. Thus, Imaam Maalik was of the opinion that sound performance depended on sound awareness. In our view, however, a generalization of this rule is not warranted, as the following Prophetic tradition indicates : “Many a man of learning can convey knowledge to someone who is more learned”. For this reason, we consider that the mastery of Hearing (Samaa) is a kind of absolute awareness which goes with performance. The latter, which constitutes the third stage in the process of learning, consists of the ability to transmit knowledge.

Transmission of knowledge is a domain in which people's abilities vary tremendously. According to Abu Musa, the Prophet (PBUH) illustrated this fact by the following hadith : (88)“The case concerning what Allah has revealed to me in terms of guidance and knowledge is similar to the case of abundant rain that has hit a country, so that the clean part of it received the water favourably and yielded plenty of grass and vegetation; the barren parts of it held the water so that people used it for drinking, watering their animals, and irrigating their fields; but it also hit another part of the country, which consists of ravines and abysses, where neither water remains nor grass grows. That illustrates two cases; the case of someone who has learned the religion of Allah and benefited from what Allah has revealed unto me and then proceeded to teach that which he has learned, and the opposite case of someone who did not benefit in any way from all that and thus has neither raised a head nor accepted God's guidance, for which I was sent”.

Therefore, in matters of knowledge and learning, we can distinguish three categories of people. The first category consists of those who acquire knowledge and apply what they have learned in such a way that they benefit both themselves and other people. This category of scholars constitutes the elite of the Umma, because they have accepted the Prophet's guidance, obeyed his instructions, and spread his message. This is the case of a fertile land that has received rain and produced plenty of fruit. The second category is similar to barren land that produces neither fruit nor grass, but which is nevertheless useful in that it holds rain water from which people can benefit. This is so because this category consists of scholars who have preserved knowledge and transmitted it without contributing anything to it. Some scholars suggest that this category consists of those learners who rely more on memorization than on comprehension and meditation. But, in spite of that, they are considered among the praiseworthy, because the last part of the Prophetic tradition collapses these two categories into one, since both acquire knowledge and pass it on to the new generations. The third category consists of those who did not benefit from Prophetic guidance, because they were not receptive to the rain. Like a soil that neither grows grass nor holds rain water, they are completely useless.

During the different stages in the learning process, the educator can make use of a number of methods and strategies in order to awaken the learner's mind, sharpen it and increase the degree of its concentration and attention. Such methods may include the following :

i) Suspense : This is meant to arouse the learner's curiosity and to awaken his eagerness. Thus, suspense can be created by rhetorical means such as questions, for instance, as when the Prophet (PBUH) opened his speech during his Farewell Pilgrimage to Mecca (hajjat al-wadaa) with the question, “What day is this ?” (89)which made his audience think that he was going to give it another name.

ii) Illustration through exemplification : An instance of this consists of the following Quranic verse : “O mankind ! Listen carefully to this illustration. Lo ! Those on whom you call instead of Allah cannot create even a fly, though they combine together for the purpose; and if the fly took something from them, they could not recover it therefrom. So weak are (both) the seeker and the sought !” (XXII : 73). Allegory and simile are used extensively and most successfully for illustrative purposes in the Qur’an, as the following recurrent verse clearly indicates : “Allah coineth the similitudes for mankind in order that they may reflect” (XIV : 25).

iii) Contextualization: This method, which facilitates both comprehension and recall processes, is known among the experts of Hadith as “musalsalaat” (chained traditions).

iv) Testing : This is one of the methods that can be employed to find out whether or not the student has heard and understood, and whether he is capable of transmitting what he has heard and understood.

5.3.2. Memorization and Performance

Concentration on memorization is one of the methods that characterize Islamic education. As reported by Abu Omar, Abdullah Ibn Al-Mubaarak defined the learning process as follows : “The first step in the learning process consists in intending; then listening; then understanding; then memorization; then working ; then publishing”.

However, modern education has taken the opposite course, as it has given priority to the ability to make inferences and logical deductions. Montaigne, one of the major theorists in the domain of modern education, is often quoted on the following statement : “A well-made head is better for me than a full one”, Among Muslim scholars, Ibn Khalduun has the privilege of being the first to have, centuries ago, severely criticized the traditional education methods in the Maghrib in general, and in Morocco in particular, blaming them for concentrating on memorization without attempting to rip open the screen of ignorance through discussion and argumentation.

It may well be the case that memorization alone is not enough, just as there may be no point in making the student memorize something he does not understand. However, it is a fact that Islamic education has always relied on memorizing through hearing. But the kind of hearing we are talking about here consists in listening to professors, while they are lecturing, in order to understand in an appropriate manner what is being said. Then comes memorization as a third stage in the process of learning. In our view, this is what Imaam Muhammad Ibn Ismail Al-Shaafii meant when he sang the following verses :

My knowledge stays with me ; wherever I go, it follows me.

My heart, a chest of great capacity, is its receptacle.

Whether at home or at the market place,

My knowledge never parts with me.

If the student contents himself with understanding issues and problems without memorizing that which he will need in his scholarly activities, he will be permanently dependent on his personal library. Knowledge will desert him whenever he leaves it, and he might even lose it for good if he loses his library. Indeed, his case would be similar to that of Abu Bakr Al-Suli, whom a writer mocked in the following lines :

Al-Suli's library is most knowledgeable indeed,

For whenever we asked his opinion on a fact or a deed,

He would say to his servant : Go and bring me the books I need.

The Islamic education experience has proved that the human being is capable of storing in his memory an amazing amount of information. Thus, for instance, it has been reported that the Mother of the Believers, Aisha (May God be pleased with her), used to memorize tens of thousands of poetic verses, in addition to an impressive number of Prophetic traditions. Among the transmitters of Hadith, there was at least one who memorized more than one hundred thousand hadiths. The famous story of Imaam Al-Bukhaari in Baghdad is a case in point. Intending either to test his memory or to cause him to err, the people of Baghdad related to Al-Bukhaari a number of traditions whose chains of authorities (Sanad) were intentionally altered or inverted, but Al-Bukhaari was able to reproduce, from memory and on the spot, the correct chain of authorities for each one of the presented traditions.

The Shanguit Quranic schools, with their traditional “mahadir”, provide a good example of a memory-based approach to education. However, in order to preserve this distinguishing feature of Islamic education, memorization should be considered as a means of consolidating comprehension, in addition to serving other cultural and educational purposes.

In connection with this issue of memorization, Ibn Khalduun provides an interesting contrastive analysis of the educational methods used in the Maghrib and those used in the Mashriq. According to him(90) :

Fez and other regions of the Maghrib remained deprived of an adequate educational system since the extinction of the system of education initially developed in Cordoba and Kairawan. Thus, we find that their students, after having spent many long years of their life attending classes and lectures, are passive and silent. They never speak or negotiate, and rely too much on memorization, which prevents them from exercising their ability to dispose freely of that which they have learned. Then, even when they completed their so-called education, you find that they are extremely limited in their ability to negotiate, argue, or teach. Their incapability, however, is due to no other cause than the inadequacy of the kind of training and education they have received. Otherwise, their ability to memorize is exceptional, as they devote their greatest attention to it, assuming that it is the ultimate goal of any learning process.

What confirms the inadequacy of the educational system in Morocco, in particular, is the fact that students here are required to spend sixteen years in residence at school, whereas in Tunis the residence period is five years.

Unlike the case in the Maghrib, the art of education in the Mashriq has never been discontinued or interrupted. On the contrary, its markets are thriving, and its seas are brimful. Obviously, this is due to the fact that the Mashriq has many largely populated cities, a rich and flourishing civilization, and an old educational tradition.

Thus, on the whole, people of the Mashriq have more experience not only in the domain of education, but in other arts and skills as well, to such an extent that many Maghribi travellers might believe that the Mashriqi mind is, on the whole, more developed than the Maghribi mind, that people of the Mashriq are innately more intelligent than the people of the Maghrib, and that the Mashriqi people are endowed with a faculty of speech which is innately much more developed than that of the Maghribi people. Indeed, when Maghribi travellers notice how smart and advanced the Mashriqi people are in the various domains of science and art, they tend to believe that the disparity (in these domains) between the Mashriqi people and us is due to some difference in the essence of our human constitution, which is not true.

Although Ibn Khalduun's severe criticism of the teaching methods used in the Maghrib is valid with regard to the historical circumstances he is concerned to study, it is nevertheless the case that his general remarks concerning the principles of education in general are still relevant today; and, therefore, they deserve to be studied and tested. In what follows, we provide a brief summary of such remarks and observations(91). According to Ibn Khalduun :

Learning and teaching are innate in man; the human being never ceases to think; and this leads to the emergence of fields of knowledge, crafts, and skills, as we have mentioned earlier on. Thus, education is a craft : It is the process of acquiring the highest degree of proficiency and skilfulness in a given field of knowledge by mastering it. However, the full mastery of any given field of knowledge depends on the incidence of the aptitude to grasp the basic principles and foundations of the field in question, to study and comprehend its different issues, and to discover the relationships between its branches and its underlying foundations. This aptitude has little to do with awareness or comprehension, because the ability to comprehend one single aspect of a problem is something that belongs to the man in the street as well as to the scholar; but the aptitude we are talking about is something which belongs only to the scholar.

Aptitudes in general, whether they reside in the body or in the brain, are basically physical in character. Consequently, they need training. For this reason, reliance on renowned masters in the learning of any field of knowledge, craft, or skill, has always been considered to be of great importance by people of all horizons and generations. The easiest way to develop such aptitudes is through the use of language, for it is through conversation, dialogue, and debate that we get to apprehend scientific issues and problems.

Useful and efficient learning is a gradual process. It occurs progressively, step by step, and little by little. The study of scientific disciplines, in a general manner, is first. Next is the study of basic issues pertaining to each specific discipline, starting with the easiest, and using the most appropriate examples for illustration. In the meantime, due consideration should be given to the mental abilities of the student as well as his preparedness and readiness to receive and assimilate that which is transmitted to him. Then, the master can return to the specified field of specialty for a second time and deal with it from a higher level than the level of teaching : He will depart from generalities and begin to address controversial issues, explaining every case, including difficult cases as well as obscure or ambiguous ones. However, some students may need to have this pattern repeated several times. Also, the teacher should be careful not to confuse the students by making them study more than one book or subject at a time. Nor should he prolong his class sessions beyond reason, or have long intervals between one session and the next. In any case, as the saying goes, to teach a learner two things at a time is the best way to make him forget both(92).

So far, the Prophetic traditions and the various scholars' views presented in this section make clear the different stages involved in any educational process and praise those educators who respect them. However, our presentation of the pedagogical means and methods suggested by Ibn Khalduun does not mean that they are the only efficient way to acquire scientific knowledge. Indeed, the pedagogical means used in our present time are far more developed; they involve the use of new techniques and sophisticated machines. Yet, the fact remains that the final results still depend, to a great degree, on the experience of the teacher, his intelligence, his skill, and his competence. Also, teaching is not just a trade. Therefore, it is not enough for the teacher to master his subject matter and to excel in it, though this is a necessary condition, but he should, in addition to that, be endowed with the gift of teaching.

5.4. Libraries

Libraries are an important means of education. Throughout history, Muslims have always given special attention to libraries owing to the fact that their basic constitution is the Qur’an, and the Qur’an is the Book par excellence. At the beginning of “The Cow” Surah, God the Most High says : “Alif. Laam. Miim. This is the Perfect Book” (II : 1-2). The holiness of the Qur’aan somehow spread over, casting an aura of respect on books in general, including Arabic script and the languages in which scriptures were revealed to prophets. The importance that Islam and Mulims attach to the written word is explicitly highlighted in the Prophetic tradition which states that “On the Day of Judgement, scholars' ink will be measured against martyrs' blood”(93) .

Indeed, it was through the First Book (Al-Qur’an) that Muslims knew their faith and the foundations of their Sharia. When they had learned how to write it, they began to write books in other fields of knowledge. As a result, each scholar used to have his own scrolls, rags, and registers; or, in other words, his own private library. Earlier Muslim scholars had a much more difficult task, when such materials as paper and papyrus were hard to get, and they had to write on slates made of bones and stones, or on palm leaves.

However, less than a century later, there were so many books availble that many virtual libraries, public as well as private, were founded to store on their shelves hundreds of thousands of books written by Muslim scholars, some of whom were so prolific that their output exceeded in certain cases a hundred volumes.

Owing to the expansion of Islam and its contact with other civilizations, Muslim scholars discovered new forms of knowledge. Consequently, they acquired the sources relevant to each field of knowledge, studied and assimilated them, and then made their own contributions.

There are many examples that illustrate the great interest which Muslims had in books. Two of these examples are particularly famous. For instance, it is reported that Al-Hakam Al-Mustansir, the Omayyad Caliph of Muslim Spain, owned a library that contained more than a million books. Also, it is recorded in history that, following the destruction of Baghdad by the Mongols, millions of books were thrown into River Tigris so that they formed a kind of floating bridge. Some of these rare and precious books, which were spared from destruction, still exist in certain great libraries of the world, both in the East and in the West. In the Islamic world, libraries continue to be the object of great attention and care. On the one hand, cultural and educational institutions are all anxious to acquire books and other publications that are relevant to their needs. On the other hand, international and regional organizations compete with one another in founding libraries and managing them rationally, according to the principles of what is now commonly called “Library science”. This revival is largely due to the development of communications technology and the use of reduction techniques such as microfiche and microfilm, which make it possible to store a whole book in one small sheet. Indeed, it is now possible to store library data in the computer and to link it to regional and international networks.

Islamic educational and cultural institutions are trying hard to catch up with this revolution and to partake in it. The cultural Centre of King Faysal's Foundation provides the best example in this regard. This centre has acquired an impressive collection of books, both ancient and modern, and classified them according to the latest techniques; in addition, it has created a data bank to cater for the needs of students, researchers, and scientific bodies.

These laudable efforts need to be sustained by the media so as to enable both scientific bodies and students to benefit from the available facilities and services which are only partially exploited.

Speaking of books and their role in the domain of education, we should emphasize the special importance of text books, which are capable of playing a crucial role in unifying Islamic educational programmes and methods for the entire Umma. It is also worth emphasizing the necessity for Muslim scholars, who are specialized in modern science, to be fully aware of the fact that it is their responsibility to translate scientific and technological knowledge into the languages of Muslim countries so that Muslims everywhere can have easy access to scientific references.

ـــــــــــــــ

(75) The tradition “Let your deals be fair and square” was produced by Imaam Maalik in his Muwattaa, on the authority of Amr Ibn Yahyaa Al-Maazini.

(76) This rule means that the means used are affected by the intended goals

(77) Scholars are unanimous concerning the authenticity of this tradition, which was related by Omar Ibn Al-Khattaab.

(78) Reference is being made here to the Prophet's utterance “Let your deals be fair and square”, or “Neither a harm-causer nor a harm-sufferer be”.

(79) Reference to the hadith : “Let no one deny access to water surplus”.

(80) On the authority of Ibn Abbaas, Muslims are partners in three things : water, pasture, and fire.

(81) On the authority of Abu Hurayra, reported from the Prophet (PBUH), “If a neighbour asks anyone of you to allow him plant a piece of wood in your house, do not prevent him from doing so”.

(82) The instrument used in straightening up spears is called “thiqaaf”, having the same pattern as “kitaab” (book), whereas “thaqaafa” (culture) is a deverbal noun derived from the trilateral form “thaqaafa”; the two terms, however, share the same root.

(83) Vol. I, p. 32.

(84) From a research paper by Pr. Nasir Al-Diin Al-Asad, in Manshuuraat Muassasaat Aal Al-Bait.

(85) Related by Al-Bukhaari in his Sahiih, on the authority of Hakim Ibn Hizaam.

* “hadith qudsi” is the Muslim tradition in which God Himself speaks, as opposed to “hadith nabawi”, an ordinary Prophetic tradition.

(86) Accepted by unanimity; related by Abu Hurayra.

(87) Accepted by unanimity.

(88) Produced by Al-Bukhaari and Muslim, on the authority of Abu Musa Al-Ashaari.

(89) Tradition has it that the Prophet (PBUH) stood on Mount ‘Arafaat and said : “Do you know what day today is ? What month this is ? And what city this is ? Lo ! Your blood and your possessions are taboo for you”.

(90) Al-Muqaddima, p. 1515 onward.

(91) Al-Muqaddima, p. 777 onward.

(92) Al-Muqaddima.

(93) This tradition, which was produced by Ibn Abdulbarr, on the authority of Abu Al-Dardaa is based on a weak chain of authorities.

Publications of the Islamic Educational‭, ‬Scientific and Cultural Organization‭