Contents

Chapter Four :

Development Strategies

4.1. Pedagogical Conduct

Development strategies for the Muslim society necessarily pass through the conduct of the teacher and the student, and their behaviour in society. More specifically, the success or failure of such strategies will ultimately depend on the degree of the teacher and the learner's commitment to the Islamic principles referred to in our discussion of Ibn Abdelbarr's views on Islamic education. To recall, some of these principles are integrity and sincerity, modesty and sacrifice, meditation and endeavour.

4.1.1. Trustworthiness and Sincerity

These are two pillars of Islamic education. Being the responsibility of the Ulema, Islamic education should be delivered in good faith, and whoever fails to deliver it with due sincerity and honesty, will have lied to the Prophet of the Umma, who said : “Whoever lies to me with intent shall take his seat in Hell.(42). The harmful effects of treason in Islamic education spread from one generation to the other. As its teachings have far-reaching effects on successive generations, Islamic education also determines the destiny of nations. Therefore, as tradition has it, he who has initiated a good tradition shall be rewarded twice ; and he who has initiated an evil tradition shall bear double the burden of his sin.

Motivated by a deep sense of responsibility, and anxious to ward off rumour and falsehood, Muslim scholars did their best to verify and scrutinize everything that could have an effect on people's lives. In this regard, they invented an extremely precise science which we may term “the science of predication” (or Ilm al-isnaad). Also, their desire to preserve the faith made them subject the Holy Qur’an (which Allah Himself revealed and preserved) to predication, which they regarded as a condition for the immutability and constancy of the Scripture. In this connection, Ibn Al-Jazri Al-Muhaqqiq says : “Any Quranic utterance that satisfies these three criteria is part of the Holy Qur’an : grammaticality, orthographic transferability, and predicability”.

Muslim scholars used the science of predication to monitor the transmission of Prophetic tradition, for which they established very precise and rigorous critical principles in order to check the authenticity of its predication and narration. On this basis, they distinguished two categories of Prophetic tradition (or Hadith) : “authentic” or “sound” (Sahiih), and “weak” (“da’iif”). They also provided a detailed description of the characteristics of each category.

Likewise, they subdivided the holders of Prophetic tradition into two groups :“trustworthy” or “reliable” informants, and “weak” informants. In this respect, they made fine distinctions between a“fabrication”, a“lie”, and “deceit”, on the one hand, and between a ´”testimony” and a “report”, on the other. Finally, they produced a large body of literature on“lesion” (tajriih) and “amendment” (taadiil ).

Other branches of study also benefited a great deal from this excellent model. For instance, medieval Arab historians and linguists applied the same approach in collecting their data, which they documented by regularly citing their references. Literary critics, in their turn, paid special attention to biographical information concerning transmitters (or rapsodes) of ancient Arabic poetry, which enabled them to authenticate some of them in their works, and to reject others whom they accused of lying and plagiarism.

There is no doubt that integrity and truthfulness are of great relevance to the transmission of secular science, as they have to do with the respect of scientific authority and the right of intellectual property. Furthermore, researchers in the field of experimental sciences are required to present the results of their scientific experiments (or their findings) in accordance with these two principles ; that is, in all sincerity and integrity.

4.1.2. Modesty and Sacrifice

Modesty is a noble Islamic moral quality enjoined on man by Allah in his Holy Book, wherein He commands him not to puff up his cheeks with pride before people, or tread haughtily upon the earth, warning him that He loves not any arrogant boaster. The Prophet (PBUH) also warned against arrogance and self-conceit, making of his own life and conduct a most wonderful example of modesty. It is reported in Al-Bukhaari's Sahiih, on the authority of Anas Ibn Maalik, that people used to come to the Prophet (PBUH) and he would go with them wherever they wanted.

Modesty is also one of the most important moral requisites of any educator. Therefore, a modest educator should never claim knowledge of what he knows not. Moreover, his behaviour towards his students should be governed by high moral standards so that he can serve to them as a model ; for, as the saying goes, “culture robs nature”.

Arrogance of scholars is dangerous : It results in fanaticism and refusal to admit the truth, even when it is blatant. For this reason, Muslim scholars paid great attention to this question and wrote a great deal on the ethics of debates and arguments for the purpose of clarifying the truth. Their slogan was : “Knowledge should not be sought for the purpose of wrangling with the foolish”.

A most erudite scholar, Mahand Baaba Ibn Abeid Al-Shanguiiti, wrote in this connection :

He does not err who recognizes his mistake ;

Nor should he, for this reason, be blamed.

The one who really errs and does wrong is him who,

Against plain truth, obstinately defends his error.

It is reported that Sheikh Ahmed Ibn Al-Aaqil Al-Daymaani Al-Shanguiiti used to say to his students : “My teaching method consists in holding a text in our hands and then start studying it. I may understand it before you do just as you may understand it before I do. Or we may understand it together at the same time”. This statement, which is made by an eminent and very learned scholar, constitutes an excellent example of modesty.

Sacrifice in the field of knowledge is a distinctive feature of Muslim scholars, whom God commended in His Book, and whom the Prophet (PBUH) praised in his tradition. Muslim scholars know that they owe a duty to knowledge and that anyone who conceals knowledge will be checked (on the Day of Judgement) with a bridle of fire. It is those scholars and teachers, whose sole ambition is to please God, who will inherit Prophets. Unfortunately, reality today shows that the necessities of life have transformed all educators into employees that practice teaching in order to earn a living. However, although it would be unfair to blame anyone who has been driven by necessity to practice teaching in order to subsist, yet, in order to preserve the status of knowledge and scholarship, as well as the sacred character of the teaching profession, we must develop among educators and teachers a kind of awareness that honors their profession and inspires it with the awe of Allah, for Allah is Guardian over all things.

4.1.3. Meditation and Endeavour

God the Almighty says :

1) Do they meditate on the Qur’an, or is it that their hearts are locked up from within ? (XLVII : 24)

2) In the earth there are Signs for those who believe firmly, and also in your own selves. Will you not then see ? (LI : 20-1)

3) Have they not considered the dominion of the heavens and the earth, and what things Allah has created ? (VII : 185)

These verses invite the reader/hearer to meditate on the Holy Scripture, to ponder over matters pertaining to one's own self, and to observe the universe.

“Meditation” and“observation” are not used here in the sense of subjective introspection which is confined to the individual's own thought processes in an attempt to understand. Rather, they are used in the sense of contemplation and deep reflection for the purpose of appreciating the divine wisdom in the acts of worship and perceiving where profit resides with respect to earthly matters. It is this spiritual exercise which brings the human being close to becoming God's own heir on earth.

In the early periods of Islam, Muslim scholars applied the principle of meditation successfully, which enabled them to draw from the Holy Qur’an and the noble tradition a large corpus of laws and statutes pertaining to various domains and aspects of life. From the same sources, they also derived the flame of faith and jihaad which made them diffuse the message of Islam from Andalusia to Khurasan.

However, when Muslim scholars contented themselves with imitation and copying (taqliid), and closed the road of independent judgement and innovation (ijtihaad), they began to regress. Thus, instead of going back to the original sources of divine knowledge, namely the Qur’an and the Sunna, they contented themselves with repeating the views and arguments of their predecessors.

Their blind, unquestioning adoption of traditional views and theses led them into a state of intellectual impotency, which explains why their schools were concerned essentially with the works of ancestors, explaining or summarizing them, providing side notes, footnotes, and super-commentaries. This traditional spirit in the domain of theology led to a kind of inertia in other fields of study as well.

Open-mindedness and endeavour at work are the only means whereby the Umma can recover its authenticity and competence in the course of its progress towards a revival of its own potentialities in order to transcend its internal difficulties and overcome its external problems.

4.2. Towards a Unification of the Foundations of Islamic Thought : Controversial Issues

Development strategies require that education experts strive to standardize the foundations of Islamic thought. Standardization of Islamic thought does not mean that all Muslims should follow the same doctrine in elaborating and applying canonical law. The wide scope of the Sharia, on the one hand, and its suitability for different necessities and contexts, on the other, can be conducive to different by-laws and regulations. But what is essential is that there should be a form of consensus with regard to the basic principles of unification and the spelling out of articles of faith. The points of divergence that may be a source of controversy among Muslim scholars should be clearly understood. In this area, too, it is necessary to observe the rules governing debates among Muslims. A forbear used to say that, in a debate, he wanted nothing but the triumph of the truth, and that it made no difference to him whether that goal is achieved through what he himself said or through what his opponent said. Also, according to tradition, Imaam Al-Shafii had a dispute with one of his contemporary scholars over the use of a dead animal's hide after having it tanned, and when the two scholars met and heard each other's arguments, they changed their opinions.

We intend in this work to provide instances of issues that are still a subject of controversy among Muslim groups. Our purpose behind providing such examples is not to give a personal opinion, but to suggest to the educator ways of handling such issues, bearing in mind that deliverance of formal legal opinions is the sole prerogative of experts of the Sharia, the men of knowledge, who practise speculative thinking and exercise independent judgement. In this section, we will limit ourselves to presenting the views of some Muslim thinkers concerning two principal issues, namely, the question of Sufism and the issue of Unity of God. We also intend to provide evidence to the effect that both scholastic theologians and philosophers admit their failure to account for the question of Unity of God by relying on the human mind alone, and to argue that when reason comes to a standstill and the mind becomes confused, the believer, then, resorts to the texts of revelation, which constitute the true expression of the religious reality.

4.2.1. Scholastic Theology

Although the believer does not, in principle, study human issues from a strictly rational perspective, we nevertheless believe that, if rational investigation is not incompatible with the Muslim's faith and the divine Commands, there would be no harm in undertaking such investigations, especially that the canonical law of Islam regards reason as a means for acquiring knowledge, pairing its existence with responsibility. Indeed, there are many Quranic verses that urge the individual human being to apply reason in his meditation upon the Kingdom of Heaven and the Earth so that he can arrive at recognizing the existence of God, Creator of the universe, and believe in His Unity.

But the human mind has its limitations ; and, what's more, it recognizes the existence of such limitations just as it admits that many theological questions are beyond the realm of reason and its capacity. Thus, for instance, it is not easy for the mind to conceive of something which is inherently limitless or infinite. This is why Al-Ghazaali considered that Muslim philosophers plunged into nonsense when, relying on the work of ancient Greek philosophers, they came up with all kinds of inadequate theories, some of which consisting of erratic inventions, and others of sheer lies and heretical proposals.

In his quest for absolute truth, Al-Ghazaali comes to the conclusion that absolutely true knowledge cannot be reached through the mind alone. For Al-Ghazaali, the fact that the mind often belies the senses suggests that there is, behind the mind, another judge which, if it became manifest, would disprove the mind's judgement, just as the mind disproves the judgements of the senses. Like in a dream, one believes that what happens is real, but when one wakes up, the irreality fades away. Consequently, Al-Ghazaali suggests that, compared with the hereafter, this life is like a dream, as the Prophet (PBUH) said : “People are asleep; when they die, they wake up”(43).

In this connection, Abu Abdillah Al-Raazi notes that knowledge of God has three dimensions : knowledge of the essence, knowledge of attributes, and knowledge of acts, and on each one of these there is a node, or a knot :

The knot concerning knowledge of the essence of God is this : Is existence the same as essence, or is it additional to essence ?

The knot concerning knowledge of attributes consists of the following question : Are attributes additional to essence or not ?

The knot relative to knowledge of acts is as follows : Is the act concomitant with essence, or is essence prior to the act ?

Alluding to his predecessors' failure to provide adequate answers to such metaphysical questions, Al-Raazi writes : “In my lifelong search for Truth, I have learned nothing more than a collection of 'It was said that...' and 'They said that...”, pointing out that : “I have carefully studied the methods and procedures used by both scholastic theologians and philosophers, but in vain, as neither of them could quench my thirst. So, I returned to the Qur’an and realized that it provides the shortest way to understanding the essence of God. In the Qur’an, I can read such assertive statements as “The Beneficent One, Who is established on the Throne” (XX : 5) or “Unto Him good words ascend, and the pious deeds does He exalt” (XXXV : 10), negative statements like “There is nothing like Him” or “They cannot compass Him with their knowledge” (XX : 110), and “Knowest thou one that can be named along with Him ?” (XIX : 65). And whoever experiences what I have experienced, will learn what I have learned”(44).

Unlike Al-Raazi, Ibn Roshd tried to defend philosophy by standing up for the “Walkers” (al-mashshaauun) and ancient philosophers. His stand made him adopt the assumption that wisdom (meaning 'philosophy'), cannot be incompatible with the Sharia. According to him,

If this Sharia is true and it truly urges the individual to resort to speculative thinking so as to reach the Truth, then, we, the Muslims, are absolutely certain that reason, based on proof and demonstration, does not lead to conclusions that are incompatible with the principles of the canonical law of Islam. Philosophical truth does not contradict canonical truth; and canonical truth does not contradict philosophical truth. On the contrary, the two agree and testify in favour of one another(45).

Ibn Roshd asserts that he is absolutely certain that any conclusion that is reached through a logical reasoning based on proof and demonstration is valid, and that if such a conclusion is incompatible with the literal reading of the canonical law of Islam (Shar’), then the canonical law in question should allow for another interpretation on the basis of the principles governing the interpretation of Arabic discourse. For Ibn Roshd, the interpretation required in this context consists in moving from the literal meaning of the text to its intended metaphorical meaning.

The kind of interpretation suggested here has to do with what Ibn Roshd calls the “secret” of the Sharia. For him, the Sharia has overt and covert aspects, the understanding of which depends on the individual's insight and his natural disposition to believe.

Ibn Roshd claims that the occurrence of conflicting cases in Islamic canonical law is clear indication that those scholars who are firmly grounded in knowledge should provide a unifying explanation of such cases, as suggested in the following Quranic verse :

“He it is Who has revealed unto thee the Scripture wherein are revelations that are fundamental- They are the basis of the Book - And others which are allegorical. Wherefore, those in whose hearts there is deviation pursue that which is allegorical, seeking to cause dissension by attempting to explain it. But none knows its explanation except Allah and those who are firmly grounded in knowledge”. (III : 7)

Ibn Roshd further adds that some explanations (of the Qur’an) should not be made explicit except to those who are given to the interpretation of the Quranic discourse, namely those who are grounded in knowledge, pointing out, that on his personal reading of the Quranic verse quoted above, he prefers to mark a pause, not before, but after, the clause“and those who are firmly grounded in knowledge” so that “and” would have the function of coordinating, rather than initiating, the clause in question. In his view, this makes sense because if the knowledgeable ones were not versed in the art of “interpretation”, they would not have the privilege of validation, which grants them a degree of faith that cannot be expected to be found in common people. Indeed, Allah refers to those who are firmly grounded in knowledge as“believers”, and Ibn Roshd says that they are the ones who possess the proof- i.e. the logicians.

As for those who are not firmly grounded in knowledge, they consist, according to Ibn Roshd's theory, of two categories, namely those who believe on the force of the dialectical arguments, and those who believe through the power of imagination. Therefore, according to Ibn Roshd, the appropriate response to the latter category of people, regarding the allegorical verses, is to mark a pause immediately after “Allah” , when reading the clause “None knows its interpretation except Allah”.

Basically, then, Ibn Roshd distinguishes two main categories of people : common people and the elite. As far as the Qur’an is concerned, common people are addressed directly and literally; and the arguments used to their attention are concrete arguments. So, this category is not required to go deeply into the meanings of concepts or even to explain such phenomena as appear to contradict reason. By contrast, the elite must dive deep after the meanings of Quranic verses so as to be able to provide adequate explanations of unusual phenomena in accordance with their mental representations.

Ibn Khalduun does not refer directly to Ibn Roshd's theory. Nevertheless, he provides an analysis of the logicians' arguments in connection with his discussion of theoretical abstractness, mental representations, and the role of the mind in theology. According to Ibn Khalduun :

It is common practice among scholars to apply their mental power in their search of hidden meanings. Very often, they derive their terminologies from concrete objects and then they transform them into abstract concepts which can be used to refer to general wholes, not to a specific substance, individual, generation, nation, or category of people. Then, they apply the general to the particular. Also, they measure matters against their analogues according to what they commonly call the principle of analogy. However, all their rules and principles remain abstract, residing in the mind, and do not become applicable to the physical world until the process of searching and reflecting is over. Yet, correspondence between the abstract theory and the concrete phenomena is never wholesale. On the contrary, correspondence occurs only between one element, or set of elements, in the real world and its equivalent theoretical representation in the mind(46).

Ibn Khalduun further notes that “events that occur in the world of the created things must necessarily be preceded by causes. And these causes transcend one another successively until they ultimately reach their initial Causer, Author, or Originator, namely God the Almighty. Praise Him !”

He also points out that causes are so many and different that the human mind is unable to recognize them all. However, he distinguishes two broad types of causes, namely intents and desires. According to Ibn Khalduun, intents are psychological phenomena resulting mostly from ulterior fancies which might have been caused by other fancies. Thus, intents are matters of the psyche, and the human being cannot determine their cause. In fact, intents are God-inspired mental phenomena whose principles and ends man is unable to explain : “Man comprehends only those causes which are natural and manifest. He can understand them because nature obeys the mind and is under its control”.

But the scope of fancies is much wider because fancies fall within the realm of the mind, which is above the control of the psyche. This is why any attempt to explain fancies is a vain intellectual exercise. Therefore, in Ibn Khalduun's view,“Since we know neither the causes nor their impact, we have been enjoined to disregard them completely and to focus only on the original Causer of all causes so that our belief in the Unity of God becomes firmly established, in accordance with what we have been taught by the Lawgiver, Who knows best where our religious interest and the key to our happiness lie, given that He is cognizant of the extrasensory reality. Thus, the Lawgiver ordered us to believe in One God : “Proclaim : He is Allah, the One ! Allah, the eternally besought of all ! He begets not, nor is He begotten. And there is none comparable unto Him”. (CXII : 1-4) The human being, though endowed with mental faculties, is limited in his senses. For example, the blind man does not perceive visible objects, and the deaf cannot hear audible sounds. If animals could speak, they would deny the existence of abstract concepts and phenomena”.

This is by no means intended to belittle the importance of the mind, whose rational judgements are based on absolute certainty. However, the fact remains that “such rational judgements cannot aspire to account for such matters as concern the Unity of God, the hereafter, the essence of Prophethood, the real nature of the Attributes of God, or any other phenomenon that lies outside the realm of reason. Thus, it seems that the small scale that was designed to weigh gold cannot be used to weigh mountains. Consequently, belief in the Unity of God is an expression of Man's inability to grasp the causes and the ways in which they can affect the course of events ; and the inability to grasp the Unity of God is a form of cognitive knowledge, but justice is not effected by the mere fact of knowing”(47).

The Qur’an includes deanthropomorphic verses testifying of the Unity of God, which scholars have interpreted on the basis of their literal meaning, and allegorical/metaphorical verses, also testifying of the Singleness of God, which they did not attempt to explain or interpret. It is the latter category of verses that were later to become a subject of controversy among Muslim scholars, who split up into two groups- the exegetists, on the one side, and scholastic theologians and philosophers, on the other. Thus, while the exegetists interpreted Quranic discourse, including the allegorical part of it, on the basis of its apparent literal meaning, claiming that God is a being, like all other beings, and that His attributes are similar to those of other beings, scholastic theologians, like the Ashaaira (i.e. the followers of Al-Ashaari's doctrine), for instance, interpreted the allegorical verses of the Qur’an in a way which is compatible with the principle of deanthropomorphism, as agreed upon unanimously by all Muslims.

In his work Daru Taarudi Al-aql wa-l-Naql (Clash Prevention between Reason and Tradition), Taqi Al-Diin Ibn Taymiyyah goes at great length in his critical discussion of the notion of “universal law” as conceived of by Muslim scholastic theologians and philosophers. He sums up the gist of the universal law in the following :

If a clash occurs between traditional evidence and rational evidence, or between tradition and the mind, or between traditionally transferred evidence and rationally inferred evidence, or between traditionally apparent phenomena and irrefutable rational evidence, etc., then one has to either accept both, which is impossible to do, since this would amount to combining two incompatible opposites, or to reject both. Or, alternatively, one has to give priority to tradition over the mind, which is also impossible, given that the mind is the source of tradition; for, if we give precedence to tradition, we will be diminishing the importance of the mind, which is the source of tradition; and to depreciate the source of something is to depreciate the thing itself. Therefore, since giving tradition precedence over the mind amounts to depreciating both tradition and the mind at the same time, it is deemed necessary to give the mind precedence over tradition. The latter, on the other hand, can be either explained or authorized; however, if the two options clash with each other like two opposites, then their combination is not allowed, though it is possible to reject both.

This kind of reasoning, Ibn Taymiyyah comments, is what Al-Raazi and his followers consider as a universal law. Furthermore, Ibn Taymiyyah notes that Al-Raazi was preceded in this practice by other scholars such as Abu Haamid Al-Ghazaali, with whom Abu Bakr Ibn Al-Arabi disagreed and consequently proposed an alternative law based on a theory suggested by Abu Al-Maali and his predecessors, notably Cadi Abu Bakr Al-Baaqillaani(48). Ibn Taymiyyah criticizes these scholars and argues that, in their analysis of Prophetic texts, they apply two methods, namely alteration and stultification.

According to Ibn Taymiyyah, those who resort to alteration are of two types : practitioners of distortion and interpretation, and adherents of fantasy and imagination. Those who adhere to the fantasy doctrine claim that Prophets informed their followers about such matters as God, Doomsday, Heaven and Hell, and also Angels, in terms that are not true to nature, but they addressed their audiences according to their imagination ; or, in other words, lying in the interest of the general public. The partisans of this doctrine, according to Ibn Taymiyyah, are Ibn Siinaa, Mubashshir Ibn Faatik, the group known as Ikhwaan Al-Safaa, Al-Sahrurdi, Ibn Roshd, Ibn Arabi, Ibn Sabiin, and Ibn Tofayl.

The partisans of the distortion and interpretation doctrine consist, in Ibn Taymiyyah's view, of such schools as Al-Mu’tazila, Al-Ashaariyya, and others, who claim that“the Prophets did not intend by their utterances except that which is true in reality, and that what is true in reality is that which we grasp through our minds. On the basis of this claim, these scholars endeavour to interpret Prophetic discourse in such a way as to make it agree with their views, which leads them sometimes to violate even the basic rules and conventions of language usage and to employ strange allegories or unusual metaphors”.

Further, Ibn Taymiyyah argues that :

I have considered in this regard all the issues that constitute a source of disagreement among scholars and found that all the arguments and interpretations which are at variance with authentic texts of pure tradition are vague, obscure, or vicious, and that their invalidity - indeed, their inherent inconsistency - stands out to reason. I have meditated on such fundamental issues as the Unity of God, His attributes, the questions of Divine Decree or Predestination, prophecies, the Day of Judgement, and so on, and found that what is apprehended by pure reason is not only contradicted by tradition, but that the kind of tradition that contradicts it consists either of fabricated Prophetic tradition or of weak inferences that cannot stand on their own as evidence, let alone if they are contradicted by rational arguments. Therefore, we contend that Prophets inform not by that which is unacceptable to reason, but rather they inform by that which agrees with the mind and conforms to reason(49).

Finally, Ibn Taymiyyah sums up his view as follows : “Anything that is at variance with true tradition is also at variance with pure reason”.

4.2.2. Islamic Sufism

Sufism is a controversial issue over which Muslim scholars and thinkers are deeply divided. Thus, some scholars regard Sufism as “the most wonderful representation of spirituality in Islam” since“it provides the most-deeply thought explanation of this faith that satiates the emotions and satisfies the intellect”. For these scholars, “the explanation provided by the Sufis is far better, and much more appealing than the rigid and dry exegeses proposed by scholastic theologians and philosophers, or the rather superficial or limited accounts given by the experts of fiqh”(50). Other scholars, by contrast, believe that“Sufism is a new heresy introduced into Islam, and that most Sufis are extremist heretics”. A third group, however, adopt a middle position : They accept any form of Sufism that conforms to the Sharia (i.e. the Scripture and the Sunna), but reject any form of it that turns out to be at variance with the Sharia. Therefore, given this state of affairs, it is clear that the educator in general needs to have a fair knowledge of the fundamentals and basic principles of Sufism in order to be able to distinguish between sound and unsound forms of Sufism.

Our aim in this section is not to present a comprehensive study on Sufism, but rather to provide a brief review of some basic issues with the intention of familiarizing the interested educator with the fundamental principles of Sufism so that he could avoid issuing unwarranted wholesale and generalized judgements. For this reason, we have chosen to present the views of some leaders of Sufism such as Ibn Nasr Al-Sarraaj Al-Tusi, author of Al-Lumaa Abu Al-Qaasim Al-Qushayri, author of Al-Risaala; Abu Haamid Al-Ghazaali, and Taqiy Al-Diin Ibn Taymiyyah.

4.2.2.1. The Foundations of Sufism in the Work of Al-Sarraaj

Al-Sarraaj states that the fundamental principles of Sufism ensue from the Holy Qur’an and consist in following the example of the Prophet (PBUH) and adopting the moral code of the Prophet's Companions and followers. Thus, Al-Sarraaj distinguishes three types of science, or fields of study, namely the Qur’an, Prophetic tradition (or Hadith), and the acts of Faith. Furthermore, he points out that each of these fields involves different levels of knowledge. Therefore, according to him, those specialized in the study of Hadith stick to the superficial level of meaning of Hadith and claim that it is the basis of religion, supporting their claim with the following Quranic verse : “Whatsoever the Messenger gives you, take it. And whatsoever he forbids you, abstain from it” (LIX : 7). As for the experts of Fiqh, though they initially agreed with the experts of Hadith with regard to the basic meanings of their studies, they ultimately managed to move away and become autonomous. Thus, in their study of Hadith, the experts of Fiqh rely more on comprehension, extrapolation, and inference. And they differ from the experts of Hadith in that they treat in depth such important issues as the gradation of legal rules, religious statutes and sanctions, as well as the fundamentals of the canonical law of Islam.

As for the Sufis, they agree with both the experts of Fiqh and the experts of Hadith, sharing their beliefs and accepting their disciplines, and being careful not to contradict them either in gist or in form, lest they be accused of heresy and bias. And when other scholars disagree with them, the Sufis resort to caution as a watch word, because their doctrine does not allow for shallow arguments or obscure interpretations. Besides, the Sufis are known for observing noble forms of worship and high moral standards. For them, a Sufi is someone who never loses sight of God in all his actions; someone who guards his heart against evil temptations as well as the preoccupations of this world, so that he ultimately reaches a position of beneficence where he can worship God as if God is watching over him in his quest for the true meaning of repentance and its various aspects, piousness and its secret implications, trust in God, endurance, gratitude, affection, as well as the implications of some of their opposites, such as hypocrisy, greed and lust, and covert polytheism.

4.2.2.2. Al-Qushayri's Notion of Sufism

Following Al-Sarraaj, Abu Al-Qaasim Al-Qushayri wrote a treatise (risaala) in which he provides relevant information about the Sufis, their doctrine and their condition, in addition to a brief discussion and explanation of their tenets and code of conduct.

Al-Qushayri opens his treatise with a discussion of the sad state of Sufism which he attributes to the perverting work of a number of impostors whose false claims have had a distorting effect on the true Sufi doctrine. In this regard, Al-Qushayri notes that “Piety is gone for good; and greed, which has substituted for it, has increased in intensity. Respect for the Sharia has deserted the human heart; and people, using lack of interest in religion as an excuse, refuse to recognize the difference between what is permitted and what is forbidden. Worse, they hold in derision all acts of devotion and scorn fasting and prayer. Having thus rushed into the arena of foolish heedlessness, they have become the slaves of desire and carnal appetite, mindlessly indulging in unlawful acts, spending wastefully what they get from the mobs, the women, and from those in power. Then, as if all these evil practices were not evil enough for them, they have begun to aim high and to aspire to higher truths and positions. Thus, they claim that they have been freed from the bonds of slavery, that they have understood the true meaning of communion, and that their mission consists in serving justice. However, they do claim, at the same time, that they are above justice and injustice, exempt from God's blame in whatever they choose to take or leave in terms of property. Furthermore, they pretend that the secrets of the Unity of God have been revealed to them, that they possess knowledge and truth in their entirety, and that God has relieved them from all human limitations. Finally, they assert that, when they are dead, they will exceptionally enjoy eternal life and light, regarding themselves unique and irreplaceable in terms of what they say, do, possess, or spend”(51).

In his treatise, Al-Qushayri also provides relevant biographical information about earlier Sufi leaders. The list includes the following names :

i) Abu Ali Al-Fudayl Al-Khurassaani (d. AH197) : He used to be a highway man, but something occurred to him which changed his life completely. It is reported that, as he was once climbing the wall of a house, he heard a voice reciting the Quranic verse “Is not the time ripe for the hearts of those who believe to submit to Allah's reminder and to the truth which is revealed, that they become not as those who received the Scripture of old but the term was prolonged for them and so their hearts were hardened, and many of them lead an evil life” (LVII : 16). And since that incident, Al-Fudayl repented and lived the life of an ascetic. Speaking of him, Abu Ali Al-Raazi wrote : “I was Al-Fudayl's companion for thirty years, and I never saw him laugh or smile”.

ii) Ibrahim Ibn Al-Adham Al-Balkhi : He was a companion of both Sufyaan Al-Thawri and Al-Fudayl Ibn Ayyaad, and was known to be a pious and God-fearing man.

iii) Abu Al-Fayd Thu al-Nuun Al-Misri (d. AH245) : He was famous for his sermons which made many a Caliph cry. It was him who used to say that “common people repent their sins, but the elite repent their unawareness”.

iv) Maruf Ibn Fayruz Al-Karkhi : a Christian who was converted along with his parents to Islam by Ali Ibn Musa Al-Ridaa.

v) Sari Ibn Al-Mughallis Al-Saqati : a pupil of Maaruuf Al-Karkhi and also uncle and teacher of Junayd. It was him who provided the following definition of “Sufi” :

A Sufi is : One whose piety is not diminished by his knowledge ; one who does not hold any secret knowledge that can be invalidated by the literal meaning of the Qur’an and of the Prophetic tradition ; one who is not led by his miraculous power to violate what God regards as sacred.

vi) Bishr Al-Haafi (d. AH277) : He was renowned for his piousness and asceticism.

vii) Abu Abdellah Al-Harith Ibn Asad Al-Muhaasibi (d. AH243) : He was a very knowledgeable and pious man.

viii) Abu Al-Qaasim Al-Junayd Ibn Samha (d. AH297) : He was the leader of the sect. He used to say : “Our doctrine is bound by the fundamentals of the Qur’an and constrained by the Prophetic tradition”.

ix) Abu Muhammad Ibn Al-Hussayn Al-Jariri (d. AH311) : He succeeded Al-Junayd as leader of the sect and was a very pious man.

x) Abu Abdellah Ibn Khafif Al-Shayraazi (d. AH391) : He was a companion of Al-Jariri.

Al-Qushayri's treatise consists of a number of chapters, each dealing with a specific issue or question. For instance, the first chapter explains the terminology of the Sufi sect(52); the second chapter analyses the concept of “repentance”(53); the third chapter discusses the notion of “acumen”(54); the fourth and the fifth chapters are respectively devoted to the question of generally accepted usage, or tradition(55), and the language of holy men or saints(56).

In his Risaala, Al-Qushayri also treats of such matters as vision in sleep, and the code of conduct concerning the novices of Sufi orders. In addition, he attempts to explain a number of Sufi terminologies and notions such as “waqt” (time), “maqaam” (position), and “haal” (mood or state).

According to Al-Qurayshi, “waqt” (time) refers to that which dominates over the human being, who is not only dependent on time, but is the product of his time. The rule of time means that the believer should unquestionably accept whatever is predetermined/predestined for him in the invisible and in all matters that are not subject to a legal decree or ruling(57).

Concerning “maqaam” (position or rank), Al-Qurayshi defines it as that which enables the human being to realize himself, on the condition that he does not ascend from one position to the next without having satisfied the requirements qualifying him for the new position. Thus, the individual who lacks frugality will not be admitted to the position of a mystic; he who is not a mystic will not be entitled to the right of submission; he who has not undergone penitence is not entitled to deputation ; and he who has no piety cannot aspire to the position of an ascetic(58).

As for “haal” (state or mood), Al-Qurayshi notes that the Sufi use this term to refer to what occurs in the heart, without intent, inducement or acquisition, in terms of emotions and feelings such as joy, grief, delight, yearning, discomfort, awe, or want. For the ascetics, such psychological states are gifts, whereas positions are acquisitions.

In his discussion of “Sharia” (the revealed, or canonical, law of Islam) and “haqiiqa” (truth or reality), Al-Qurayshi writes :

The Sharia enjoins commitment to worship, whereas reality is the sight of godship. Thus, any revealed law that is not supported by reality is unacceptable; and any reality that is not constrained by revealed law is unattainable. The revealed law came to responsibilize mankind, and reality is the non-alteration of the Truth. It is reported that Abu Ali Al-Daqqaaq used to say “Thee alone we worship' is the preservation of the Sharia; and 'Thee alone we ask for help' is a confession of the Truth”. And I know that the Sharia is the Truth because it has been established by God's Decree, and Truth is the Sharia, since knowledge of God is imposed by His Divine Decree(59).

In the same work, Al-Qushayri discusses penance and other acts of devotion performed collectively by the Sufi during their religious meetings. One can understand from his discourse that he does not disallow the singing of religious hymns, provided they are not accompanied with wind instruments. Besides, the author lists many types of Sufi meetings and hymns. Ibn Taymiyyah takes up this list and reviews it critically and systematically in his work(60).

4.2.2.3. Al-Ghazaali's Point of View

Al-Ghazaali gathered all the wisdom and knowledge of his predecessors and compiled it in his work, Ihyaa Uluum Al-Diin, which Ibn Taymiyyah described as one of Al-Ghazaali's most powerful books. Being encyclopaedic in scope, this book provides the reader with a summary of the philosophy of a kind of Sufism that is committed to observing the constraints imposed by the revealed Scripture and the Sunna, and aiming at attaining the position of beneficence through the practice of true monotheism. For Al-Ghazaali, monotheism involves three levels :

i) Monotheism confessed by word of mouth, while the heart is either not involved or is not convinced. This level is common to both the believer and the hypocrite.

ii) Monotheism involving the heart's belief in what the words mean, but without any feeling of delight or joy in the chest, or of the light of the Truth shining in the heart, though this kind of monotheism may be accompanied by theoretical arguments, as in the case of scholastic theologians.

iii) Monotheism reached through vision where the believer sees that the phenomena, despite their multiplicity and diversity, have one and the same originator, namely God. This level of monotheism is attained by the favourite ones.

iv) Monotheism in which the professor of the unity of God sees only one. He sees neither himself nor the rest of the creation. That is to say, his field of vision is occupied by the One God. And this is the ultimate level and goal of monotheism. This level of “tawhiid” (monotheism) is reached by the upright(61).

Al-Ghazzali provides a set of evidence testifying to the validity of the Sufi doctrine as the ideal application of the principles and rites of the Sharia. His evidence in this regard consists of a number of Prophetic traditions and statements made by the Prophet's Companions. For illustration, we cite the following :

i) Beware of the believer's power of discernment, for he sees with the light of God(62).

ii) Among my Umma, there are experts of Hadith and theologians ; and Omar is one of them(63) .

iii) Whenever we sent a Messenger or a Prophet, before you, and he formed a design to fulfil our purpose, Satan put obstacles in the way of his design. (XXII : 52)

Al-Ghazaali quotes the following alternative reading proposed by Abdullah Ibn Abbaas;“Whenever we sent a Messenger or a Prophet or a Transmitter of Prophetic traditions”, and suggests that the Quranic verse provides a list of the righteous.

Al-Ghazaali also quotes the following statement by Abu Al-Dardaa : “The believer views the world through a very thin screen. By Allah ! Truth has its own expressions which God injects into the hearts of the believers and utters them through their lips”(64).

Al-Ghazaali then relates his own personal experience, especially in his book, Al-Munqidh min Al-Dalaal (lit. The Savior from Error), where he describes how, in his steady search for ways of delivering himself from the dangers of doubt and polytheism, he studied the works of the experts of Fiqh, of scholastic theologians, and of philosophers, but found in them nothing that could quench his thirst. But when he turned to Sufism, he regained his spiritual serenity, and his soul became reassured and confident, which made him recite the following poetic lines :

All that was has by me been forgotten ;

Just think well, and ignore what did happen.

In his Uluum Ihyaa Al-Diin, Al-Ghazaali classifies his contemporaneous Sufi into four categories :

i) Those who adopted the outward appearances of the Sufi and considered that as the limit of Sufism.

ii) Those who, in addition to the above, wear rags that are more expensive than luxurious clothes. The case of this category is similar to that of the old woman who covered herself with a cuirass and claimed that she could go to war; but when she stood before the Sultan and he ordered to have her armor removed, her real physical state and her incapacity became apparent and she was thus formally accused of having shown contempt to the Sultan's orders.

iii) Those who are immersed in luxury, ignoring that opulence has nothing to do with Sufism.

iv) Those who pretend that they can do without the acts of faith, claiming that they have reached the highest position in the domain of Sufism. And, in my view, this is the worst form of prediction.

v) Those who have sniffed out few niceties of knowledge and stopped learning, ignoring that God has seventy veils of light.

At this stage, Al-Ghazaali provides a kind of interpretation of the story of Abraham (on whom be peace), who, whenever he beheld a light, said : “This is my Lord”. But he turned away from it whenever it set. And when the sun set, he turned his face toward Him who created the heavens and the earth. This turning of the face toward God is what Al-Ghazaali considers to be the true sense of the Sufis' notion of “tawhiid”, or their belief in the unity of God(65).

Further, Al-Ghazaali discusses the claims of some Sufi in connection with what is known as “ShaTh” (or escapade) which he defines as follows : “By escapade, we refer to two types of talk invented by some Sufi people. The first type consists of lengthy implorations having to do with passionate love for God, and a kind of reunion with Him that transcends visible acts to the extent that the folks claim that they are united with God, that the veil has been lifted, and that they can see Him with their naked eye, and talk to Him directly. And they say : “It was said to us that so and so, and we said so and so”, thereby imitating Al-Hussein Ibn Mansur Al-Hallaaj, who was crucified for having produced utterances of this kind.

The second type of escapade (ShaTh) consists of ambiguous utterances which, though they contain marvellous expressions and impressive vocabulary items, do not make any sense at all, neither to the hearer nor to the speaker. In fact, in most cases, such utterances are produced by individuals who seem to suffer from psychological instability and mental derangement as they repeat expressions which they have heard somewhere but without understanding what they mean. In certain cases, the speaker may well understand the meanings of the words he uses but he cannot make himself understood or communicate in plain language what he has in mind. Apart from the fact that it disturbs the heart and baffles the mind, this kind of discourse is both meaningless and useless(66).

However, in his work, Al-Munqidh min Al-Dalaal, Al Ghazaali states that a Sufi “may ascend in his vision to a degree that cannot be described in ordinary language”.

In any case, the views expressed by Al-Tusi, Al-Qushayri and Al-Ghazaali were not without causing great controversy about Sufism, to the extent that some people believe that Sufis propagate abominable forms of heresy, some of which are akin to atheism, while others are sheer error and misguidance. Among the Sufi doctrines that are considered as forms of heresy, we can cite the following :

i) Incarnation and Union : This doctrine is attributed to Al-Hussein Ibn Mansur Al-Hallaaj, who was tried, found guilty of heresy, and crucified. Most people agree that Al-Hallaaj said things which made his punishment a well-deserved one. His supporters, however, defend him by arguing that his utterances were ravings of the kind produced by a Sufi when in delirium.

ii) Unity of Existence : This doctrine is associated with Ibn Sabiin and Ibn Arabi Al-Hatimi. While the first was more of a philosopher than a Sufi, the second was a Sufi, and his name is still a source of controversy between his adversaries and his supporters. For instance, his adversaries blame him for having perverted the faith. They use as evidence the following statement, which was allegedly made by him : “Praise Him Who created things of which He is the essence”. His supporters, on the other hand, argue that Ibn Arabi proved his faith in his well-known book Al-Futuuhaat (Conquests), in which he adheres to the principle of deanthropomorphism in accordance with the articles of faith of the Sunnites. They also claim that if there is any statement that allegedly contradicts his faith, it may have been either attributed to him falsely, or misinterpreted, especially that Sufis like him are known to make use of special notions the meaning of which is understood only by those who are familiar with Sufi doctrines and their specific terminologies.

iii) Forms of heresy and perversion attributed to certain religious sects : Supporters of Sufism, such as Al-Qushayri and Al-Ghazaali, pretend that a religious sect should not be held responsible for outrageous acts committed by their fanatic members, pointing out that they themselves condemn any act or practice that violates the principles of the Holy Book and the Sunna, and that the leaders of such sects also wash their hands of anyone who violates such principles. Abu Al-Abbaas Al-Tijani's well known advice to his followers is a case in point. He said to them : “If you hear anything issued to you by me, weigh it on the balance of the canonical law of Islam. If it is consistent, take it ; if it is inconsistent, leave it”.

4.2.2.4. Ibn Taymiyyah's View Concerning the Sufis' Propositions

In the light of the principles established by Muslim reformists, Ibn Taymiyyah undertakes a systematic study of the Sufis' propositions, correcting some of them, and refuting others. He also expresses his views regarding many Sufi leaders. In his book, Al-Istiqaama (Rectitude), Ibn Taymiyyah provides a review of Al-Qushayri's Al-Risaala, on which he makes the following general comment :

The statements made by Abu Al-Qaasim in his Risaala, concerning the Sufis' tenets, their ethics and creed, involve a great deal of good, truth and faith, but they fall short of doing justice to the creeds of the friends of God and saints, and those who followed in their steps for three centuries. Nor did he make any reference to the masters of Sufi orders during these three centuries. In spite of the fact that his book abounds in philosophical and traditional wisdom, it nevertheless contains not only weak traditions, but invalid ones as well. In addition, it contains general statements that can be both true and false, and others that are blatantly false, both on the basis of tradition and on the basis of subjective opinion. And God has established a measure for everything(67).

Then Ibn Taymiyyah examines such propositions in detail. Concerning Al-Hallaaj, he notes that none of the Sufi masters agrees entirely with what Al-Hallaaj says. He further points out that the latter was killed either as a sinner, a rebel, an adulterer or as an atheist(68). Ibn Taymiyyah obviously also condemns all the negative things that have been attributed to Ibn Sabiin and Ibn Arabi concerning the unity of existence; however, he does not go so far as to condemn Sufism. Instead, he corrects the Sufis' views in many contexts.

For instance, Ibn Taymiyyah contends that Sahl Ibn Abdullah's discourse on tradition and the fundamentals of the acts of worship is more relevant and correct than anyone else's, including Al-Fudayl Ibn Iyyad and the others. He further argues that Al-Shabli and others like him want to distinguish between the created being and the Creator so as to refute the doctrine of union and incarnation, thereby reiterating Al-Junayd's notion of “separating timelessness (of God) from occurrence”; or, as Abu Taalib Al-Makki, author of Quut Al-Quluub, put it, “There is nothing of His essence in His creations ; nor is there anything of His creations in His essence”(69.)

Considering Al-Junayd's statement that “Belief in the Unity of God consists in your knowing and testifying that God is Single in His timelessness, that He has no associate, and that nothing can do what He does”, on the one hand, and Abu Abdillah Ibn Khafif's statement that “Faith consists in the heart's believing in what God has revealed in terms of invisible things”, on the other, Ibn Taymiyyah comments that “These two statements, which were made respectively by Al-Junayd and Ibn Khafiif, are both good and correct”(70).

Addressing his message to the companions of the religious leader Adiy Ibn Musafir Al-Amawi, Ibn Taymiyyah writes : “There are in your midst those who are chaste and blameless; they follow a favourable creed; they get illuminations and perform miracles. Your religious brotherhood includes God - fearing saints who speak the Truth about mankind. The time honoured masters of your Sufi order, especially Abu Al-Hasan Ali Ibn Youssef Al-Qurashi Al-Hukaari, who earned the title of Sheikh Al-Islam, and after him, Adiy Ibn Musafir Al-Amawi, known as the erudite and model, and all those who followed their course. Indeed, Sheikh Adiy may God sanctify his spirit, was among the most virtuous and God-fearing men, and one of the most eminent religious leaders. He is universally known among scholars for his exceptionally chaste character and glorious deeds”.

Also, Ibn Taymiyyah shows great respect for Sheikh Abdulqaadir Al-ailani, founder of a well-known Sufi order, whom he considers as a perfect saint. Ibn Taymiyyah provides an exquisite explanation of the following statement, which Abdulqaadir Al-Jailani made in his Futuh Al-Ghayb :“A believer is necessarily required, in all circumstances, to do three things : To obey imposition, avert prohibition, and accept predestination. Ibn Taymiyyah's position regarding Sufism is well-known. His opinion concerning the Sufis is summarily expressed in this statement : “Sufis are a heterogeneous group : some of them are right and some are wrong, just like other people. In spite of all they say and do, they are not more honorable than the Prophet's Companions and their Followers, for no one is infallible, except the Messenger of Allah (PBUH)"(71).

4.2.3. A Brief Statement on Difference of Opinion

The purpose behind reviewing these controversial issues is to shed light on the opinions of the majority of leading authorities in the domains of scholastic theology and Sufism, so that the educator can convince the new generations of learners that the unity of the Umma is not inconsistent with a certain type of difference of opinion that does not affect the essence of religion, as long as this kind of difference is not harmful to the unity of the Umma, or to its general interests, as in the case of conflicts between individuals over trifle religious or secular matters. Al-Shafii is reported to have said that verbal controversy is unacceptable when it concerns articles of faith; blameworthy when it concerns the fundamentals; and not harmful when it concerns the branches(72).

It is certainly the case that the unity of the Umma is not endangered by the fact that leaders of different theological schools differ in their reading of the Qur’an. In fact, the Umma has agreed by consensus that the readings proposed respectively by Nafii, Ibn Kathiir, Ibn Amir, Aasim, Abu Amr, Al-Kisa’i, and Hamza Al-Ziyyat, are all correct, and have been accepted as such by successive generations of theological masters, in the same manner as the readings associated with Abu Jaafar Al-Qaaqaa and Khalaf were adopted by the Seven Readers. There is a precedent which supports these positions. As reported by Abu Bakara, Omar Ibn Al-Khattaab disagreed with Hakiim Ibn Hizam on the reading of Surah XXV (Al-Furqan ); and when the Prophet (PBUH) heard their different readings, he confirmed the correctness of both, indicating that the Qur’an was revealed in seven letters.

One type of controversy which is not harmful to the Umma is that in which experts of Fiqh may get involved, as exemplified by the well-known controversy between Imaam Malik and Allayth Ibn Saad, on the one hand, and between the former and Ibn Abi Layla, on the other. Thus, disputes between different theological schools are a well-known fact, and theologians themselves regard them as forms of independent judgement concerning specific legal or theological questions pertaining to the branches, not to the fundamentals. In such cases, there is only one right decision, and only one correct answer. But the rule is that the legist who tries and fails has one merit, while the one who tries and succeeds has two merits.

Controversy over articles of faith may lead to division and the creation of sects, which is dangerous for the existence of the Umma and its unity, especially when the matter reaches the point where some sects believe that those who disagree with them have deviated from the true Faith. Thus, the rise of extremists in religious sects leads to abuse in justice and civil strife.

It is certainly for the purpose of avoiding this situation that God has explicitly ordered Muslims, through the Qur’an, to take fast hold of the rope of Allah and not to be divided, so that the Umma does not become like those who divided their religion and became factions.

Concerning political disputes, wars, and regional conflicts, these fall under the category of “iqtitaal” (fighting with one another), for which God has ordered reconciliation; otherwise, the aggressors should be fought until they comply with God's command.

4.3. Discipline at Work and Respect for Public Property

The success achieved by the Western world in various domains can partly be attributed to certain good traditions which are not yet firmly established in the Third World. These traditions involve discipline, respect for public property and competition for excellence. These traditions have played a crucial role in the progress and development of the Western World, and their absence accounts for the material backwardness of the Third World.

4.3.1. Discipline at Work and Respect for Public Property

Lack of discipline in administrative and economic affairs results in the institutions' losing not only their credibility, but also the public's trust and confidence, which constitutes the basis of any transaction between such institutions and the society as a whole. For instance, when an individual wants to travel by air to a given country, he will certainly fly with the company which he trusts and will get him to his destination on time, regardless of the company's nationality.

We are not minimizing the efforts made in this regard by the Islamic Umma in accordance with God's command to “keep the covenant, for of the covenant it will be asked” (XVII : 34), but we are saying that, on the whole, such efforts are not enough, given that certain bad individual habits and practices are still deeply rooted. For instance, motorists do not respect traffic signs and traffic lights, especially when there are no cars on the road. Also, administrative working hours are not observed by civil servants and employees in general ; and no-smoking zones are not respected by the general public. This is in spite of the fact that Islam insists on discipline and control of the self, considering it as a form of charity to “worship God as if God were watching you”. And Allah keeps in the shade of His Throne, on the day when there is no other shade but His, a man whose eyes filled with tears upon remembering God. Thus, consideration for God is one of the strongest signs of Faith(73).

One of the rumors that are circulated about Muslim society has to do with non-respect for appointments, especially those concerning administrative work. Meanwhile, supporters of the Western model boast that Western societies are very strict and rigorous in their respect for appointments and working time. Westerners are used to giving time great consideration, as the widely used expression, “time is money”, clearly illustrates. In fact, a dominant feature of Western societies in general consists of their commitment to the time system in every type of activity or understanding.

However, one would have expected Muslims to be more disciplined, more punctual and more committed to their appointments than any other nation. This is because God has assigned them duties that are scheduled for a given time, such as the daily prayers, fasting (one month a year), the Zakat (levied once a year), and pilgrimage (once in a lifetime). In fact, the precise timing of the articles of faith should in principle constitute both a model and an incentive for respecting any temporal commitment, as implied by this Quranic verse : “Worship at fixed times hath been enjoined on the believers” (IV : 103).

The worship activities that every Muslim is required to perform every day and every night should, in principle, prevent him from leading a life characterized by laziness and indolence, which are the work of Satan. For, as the Prophet (PBUH) said :“When the individual human being is asleep, Satan fastens him with three knots. If the individual wakes up and does his ablutions, one of the knots is unfastened; if he says his prayers, another knot is unfastened; and when all his worship exercises are done, he spends a happy day, feeling light and full of energy. If, however, he yields to sleep and laziness, he will spend a bad day, feeling physically heavy, and morally awful”(74).

Perseverance in religious activities makes it easy for the individual to be punctual in his secular duties and to perform them according to their fixed time. In this regard, it is important to bear in mind that the secular tasks that the individual does for the benefit of Muslims are part of the acts of worship the non-performance of which is considered an offence, because they are among the collective duties that should be performed by the whole community.

4.3.2. Respect for Public Property

Early in their history, Muslims had two types of public property, namely, the treasure house of Muslims, and public endowment (Waqf). The first type lost its religious significance since it became known as the state's budget. Therefore, it is no longer regarded as something sacred, or inviolable. The waqf system, by contrast, still enjoys the protection of Islamic law, especially those estates in mortmain, whose returns go to charitable institutions and places of worship.

Apart from these two types of collective property, members of the Muslim society in the main prefer private individual ownership. For this reason, we find that most financial institutions in Muslim countries are owned either by individuals or by families. In fact, corporate property is very rare. The notion of associating property with the individual may stand as an obstacle in the way of establishing the principle of group ownership, where the group is seen as part of the Umma, considering that Islam, as stated in the Qur’an, regards property as belonging to Allah, who gave it to mankind and ordered them to spend charitably from that over which he appointed them as successors. So, property belongs to God, Who appointed His servant as successor to it. The latter owns of it only that which he has eaten up, or worn up, or given away in alms. As is clear from the Prophetic guidance, the only property that the individual saves is that which he donates or gives as alms.

It is worth considering the meaning of the term “Sadaqa” (charity, alms giving) and trying to think of the various forms that charity can take. As is commonly known, one type of charity is obligatory, such as Zakat (i.e. capital levy), and another type is (re) commendable (i.e. whose neglect is not punished by God, but whose performance is rewarded). We also know that the eight categories of beneficiaries for whom Zakat is prescribed in the Holy Qur’an are the neediest categories of the community. This means that the prescription of Zakat aims at ensuring the welfare of the Umma as a whole, by ridding it of poverty and indigence.

Zakat is thus given to the poor, in order to spare them the humiliation of poverty; to the humble, in order to strengthen his position in the community; to the collectors of Zakat, to reward them for their good work; to slaves, in order to help them regain their freedom; to those who are used to it, so that they would not turn against the Umma and weaken its unity; and finally, it is given for the sake of jihaad in order to make the word of God triumph.

Therefore, the rationale behind money saving is to have it available in sufficient amounts to meet the needs of the Umma and to increase its strength and power. One of the most important means for saving money for this noble purpose is to develop the principle of public property and to encourage people to respect it.

Thus, it is necessary that Islamic education deepens awareness of the importance of public property, regardless of whether this property consists of state-owned property, or of Islamic estates in mortmain, or of money yielded by private companies. In our view, the companies that invest their capital and contribute to the development of the economy of a given Muslim country constitute a factor of development and strength for the entire Islamic Umma.

For this reason, their action is considered to be consistent with the general principles and goals of the Sharia. Consequently, to invest capital in this sense is regarded as an act of devotion since it constitutes a means of achieving solidarity among the various social categories of the Umma.

4.4. Islamic Education and the Problems of Muslim Minorities

The unity of the Umma and its power can be achieved only through its members. The Umma is composed of Muslim states which are organized within many institutions functioning together within the framework of the Islamic Conference Organization. However, about one half of the Umma are in non-Muslim countries. Thus, it is necessary to take into consideration the fate and future of this half if we really want to set up a universal and complete theory of Islamic education.

In this section, we provide a brief survey of Muslim minorities together with their problems and efforts, and underline the duties of Muslim states towards them. By “Muslim minorities” we refer to groups of Muslim populations living in countries that are not members of the Islamic Conference Organization (I.C.O.). Admittedly, this is not a very accurate definition, considering that Muslims constitute the majority of the population of several countries which are not members of the I.C.O., as was the case of Nigeria before it joined the Organization. Also, in many non-Muslim countries, Muslim communities are superior in number to any other non-Muslim community. Furthermore, in Tanzania, Communist Albania, and Ethiopia, Muslims constitute a majority of the population of these countries.

However, all these so-called Muslim minorities suffer from acute problems having to do either with their political status, as in Burma and the Philippines; or with their religious identity, as in Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, the Soviet Union, and China. In certain other cases, they suffer from racial segregation and cultural alienation, as is mostly the case with immigrant Muslims in Europe, America and South Africa.

Among Muslim minorities, there are those which suffer from economic pressures, in addition to civil strife and all kinds of disturbances, as is the case in India and some countries in Africa. All these minorities have to put up with very harsh conditions resulting essentially from restrictions on their freedom to acquire Islamic education, to exercise their religious rights, and the right to be represented in government.

These Muslim communities are fighting hard in order to preserve their religion and to live in accordance with its principles and teachings.

Since racial segregation and the oppression of minorities are part of the problems of our modern world, we consider the attempts made by minorities to resolve their problems as a contribution towards resolving world problems.

By the same token, their spontaneous efforts to preserve their identity is to be considered as an extension of the teachings of Islam whose application has been proven by history, science and experience to provide protection to mankind against the mischiefs of intellectual apostasy, moral degradation, and the effects of economic crises.

In fact, we consider their efforts to be part and parcel of the action of the Islamic Umma. For instance, the action undertaken by Muslim scholars in India, the work done by the council of Muslim scholars, by Islamic universities and their famous leaders, all this is part and parcel of the action of the Umma as a whole, in any part of the world.

What characterizes these efforts and actions is the fact that they are undertaken in very tough circumstances, because the group that embraces them have to contend with many problems and difficulties at the same time. Thus, in addition to defending themselves and their faith, they hoist the flag of the Daawa (Islamic Call) in an extremely hostile environment. Moreover, they are required, in spite of all that, to coexist with such environment and to provide the best example and model so as to prove to the others that they belong to the most perfect religion and the best Umma.

In what follows, we shall consider some of their efforts in this regard and shed light on the circumstances under which they try to carry out their duty towards their Umma and towards humanity as a whole.

The difficult circumstances in which Muslim minorities live make it necessary for them to join private organizations, or religious and cultural associations, in order to defend their rights, to protect their identity, and to practice their religious rites.

The attitude of non-Muslim states towards such organizations is usually characterized by caution, censorship and control.This attitude may become worse, especially when the state is suspicious about these organizations' loyalty, or about their relationship with other Islamic organizations outside the country in which the minority in question lives.

Sometimes, the dominant religious authorities may manipulate the minority in question and use it in such a way as to appear to be in line with the state's policy. In socialist countries, for example, Muslim religious leaders pretend to agree with and support the policies of their respective states, to the extent that they can deny the abuses to which they are subjected lest they should expose themselves to much greater harm.

In European countries, Muslim minorities may be allowed, according to the laws in force, to form organizations and associations to defend their own interests; however, their efforts very often stumble and fail because of the obstacles that are put in their way, as when they are denied the permission to build new mosques or to restore old ones, or establish Islamic educational institutions.

For the last few years, the media circles in the West have been trying to link many terrorist activities to Islamic movements, to the extent that they have sought to establish a fictitious relation between acts of violence carried out in Europe by well-known terrorist organizations and Palestinian resistance.

Another factor which has an undermining effect on the efforts deployed by Islamic movements in the West consists of the conflicts generated by competition between Muslim groups working in the same country. In what follows, we present examples of the work done by Muslim minorities in Asia, the Soviet Union, Africa, Europe, and America.

4.4.1. Muslim Minorities in Asia

The tide of Islam reached this continent at the end of the first century of Hegira thanks to the work of Muslim conquerors and merchants. Islam was first established in the land of Sind and in the region beyond the river, where many principalities were created throughout history, especially during the Abbaside dynasty. The most famous powers that rose in these regions were the Ghazwani state and the Mogul empire. After the European invasion, part of this region fell to the British empire, while the other part fell under Russian control. As a result, deep changes occurred in the region, at all levels. However, when the colonial powers lost control of their acquired territories, some Muslim states recovered their independence, while the others were annexed by force to non-Islamic states, such as China, India, and the Soviet Union. The total Muslim population in these countries is over 250,000.000 soul. By gearing all their spontaneous efforts toward protecting their Islamic faith and culture, they provide a noble example of endeavour and sacrifice in preserving the values of Islamic civilization, which provides the best approach to resolving world problems.

In the Republic of China, Muslims managed to hold out against an overwhelming wave of hostility and hatred which reached its climax under the rule of Mao Tse-Tung, who coerced the population to embrace atheism as a religion and subjected them to cultural alienation under the slogan of so-called “cultural revolution”. Thus, tens of thousands of mosques were destroyed and Muslims everywhere were prevented from performing their religious rites. In spite of all that, they remained firmly attached to their faith and established their organization, Progress Association, which has survived the storm and is now working hard to secure Chinese Muslims their fundamental rights.

In India, there are provinces which are deep-rooted in Islam and which count more than 100.000.000 Muslims. Among these we find many eminent scientists and thinkers whose works are known all over the world. Also, the work done by the “Scholars Council” and the role of Muslim universities in India are appreciated in every Muslim country.

However, in spite of their excellent services for their communities, Muslims in India have always been conspired against, segregated against, and repeatedly aggressed in violent incidents staged against them.

4.4.2. Muslims in the Soviet Union

The Muslim countries controlled by the Soviet Union are deep-rooted in Islam and contributed in the past to the building of Islamic civilization. From the long list of eminent Muslim scholars that were born in these regions, it would suffice to mention the master of the transmitters of Hadith, Muhammad Ibn Ismaiil Al-Jaafi Al-Bukhaari; the two eminent exegetists, Al-Zamakhshari and Al-Nasfi. Then, in the domain of Islamic jurisprudence (Fiqh), the great legist Al-Qaffaal Al-Shaashi; in the domain of Rhetoric Abdulqaahir Al-Jurjaani, and Saad Al-Din Al-Taftazaani; and in the domain of philosophy and science, Al-Faarabi, Ibn Siinaa, Al-Bayruuni and Al-Khuwarizmi.

These regions are also known for being rich in minerals and fertile lands. After the Bolshevik revolution, the Marxist leaders realized the strategic importance of these regions, which motivated Lenin to issue his famous call to the Muslim populations of those regions : “Your honor, your mosques and your graves have been violated; and your religious beliefs and customs have been offended and abused. The Tsars and the Russian tyrants have trampled on everything that is sacred to you. As of today, your religious freedom, your customs, your national organizations and cultural institutions will be secure from tyranny and oppression. Rise, then, and build your national life as you please ; for you are free, and nothing can prevent you from achieving what you desire to achieve...”

The Islamic countries responded to this call and declared their independence from the Tsarist rule. However, soon after, the Bolshevik revolution imposed its control and hegemony over these countries, after several years of fierce resistance, during which huge numbers of Muslims were killed. What happened in the Turkmen Republic is a clear illustration of this strategy : The population of this republic was five million in 1917, but less than half a million in 1940. Before the Bolshevik revolution, it counted more than 1,500 mosques ; but by 1940, there were just a few dozens.

The hostility shown by communism against Islam stems from the open war which communism has declared on all religions, since it is based on the belief that “Religion is the opium of the peoples”. On the other hand, it is the result of a special animosity which the central power in Russia has towards Islam. For, although Russia was transformed into a communist state, its civilizational background was, and still is, based on Judeo-Christian culture that rejects the fundamentals of Islam and its articles of faith.

Lenin's call does not say that people are free to practice their religion, but it speaks of national organizations and cultural institutions. In earlier Russian constitutions, reference is made to “freedom of religions” and “anti-religious propaganda”. But the text was later changed into “the freedom to practice religious rites” and “the freedom to practice-anti-religious propaganda”. Thus, in the 1936 constitution, which separated between the Church and the State, the freedom to embrace atheism as a form of religion was granted for all by law.

The result of this was that the educational programmes, which were devised to diffuse the state's communist ideology, propagated atheism and banned any form of religious education in state schools. In addition, the Communist Party launched a systematic propaganda campaign aiming at seducing Muslims to infidelity, using for this purpose all kinds of means, including medical treatment and female activists.

The Muslim communities in these regions are doing what they can to preserve their identity and culture through organized action, the most notable of which was the action initiated by the Mufti Diyyaa Al-Diin Khan Ibn Abashaan Babakhan, who called for the Samarkand Conference in 1974 to celebrate the 1200th anniversary of Imaam Al-Bukhaari's death, and organized the Tashkend Conference on “How to implement the directives of the Qur’an and the Sunna in the present circumstances”. This scholar was highly respected by the Russian state officials not only for being flexible in his political positions, but also for the important role he played during World War II.

Though we do not know all the reasons and principles on the basis of which was based the understanding between the Mufti and the central government in Moscow, we notice that he managed to preserve certain aspects of Islamic culture and civilization in these regions, where religious authorities have been able to repair, restore and refurbish mosques, build Islamic educational institutions, such as Imaam Al-Bukhaari Institute, in addition to preserving Islamic heritage, such as Caliph Othmaan's Copy of the Qur’an, which is presently kept safe in the city of Tashkend.

In addition, the Mufti Diaa Al-Diin, as an active member of the Mosques Supreme Council, managed to establish strong ties with Islamic institutions outside the Soviet Union.

4.4.3. Muslim Minorities in Africa

We have indicated that social backwardness and illiteracy are among the acute problems of the modern world. For centuries, these social ills have been widespread in Africa, especially in the Sub-Saharan countries. When colonial powers established their control over these countries, they imposed the teaching of their own languages so as to train collaborators from among the indigenous populations.

Also, through trading caravans from the north, and through maritime routes from the east and south east, Islam reached many points in Africa, bringing about the establishment of Islamic states and Emirates in many African regions. Even today, the number of Muslims in Africa is on the rise, in spite of the fact that Christian missions have been given a one million US dollars allowance in order to Christianize Africa by the year 2000. Thus, despite Christian alliance and Communist propaganda, Islam is expanding in Africa day after day, to the extent that the Islamic Conference Organization counts among its members twenty two African countries. In other African countries, there are large Muslim communities, constituting the majority of the population in certain non-Islamic states like Tanzania, Ethiopia, and Ivory Coast.

These Muslim minorities are making great contributions to the development of African civilization by spreading the teachings of Islam, combating illiteracy, and fighting paganic traditions that were, and still are, predominant in these regions. The mission undertaken by Muslim minorities in these parts of Africa has been crowned with success in many regions, where Muslim communities have been able not only to build mosques, cultural centres and schools, but also to convince large numbers of jungle people to give up their primitive life style and to live in dignity as civilized human beings. As a result, the practice of offering human sacrifices to idols has ceased; the phenomenon of nudism has disappeared ; and family life has become more organized.

4.4.4. Muslim Minorities in Europe and America

Muslim minorities in Europe and America live in those countries that are commonly referred to as Western democracies. Because these countries enjoy the privilege of technological supremacy, they believe it is their right to establish their control over the rest of the world. Also, because they have reached a high degree of scientific development, they tend to regard all other civilizations with disdain and arrogance: They assume that their might is absolute, their culture is supreme, and their system of government is the best.

However, this lofty edifice is being insidiously pervaded by a number of destructive phenomena that are capable of weakening the very foundations of this imposing structure and causing its ultimate collapse. These phenomena consist of such factors as the production of sophisticated weapons of mass destruction, moral degeneration, anti-religious education, prevalence of self-interest in the domain of economic cooperation, and the spread of robbery, assault and violence.

It is true, on the whole, that Muslim communities in these countries constitute a small proportion of the population; nevertheless, they manage to make their influence felt in this environment. The Muslim communities living in Europe consist mainly of Asian immigrants in the United Kingdom, and of North African immigrants, in France. Those living in America consist of native Americans who have embraced Islam as a religion, on the one hand, and of Asian and African Muslim immigrants, on the other. All these groups are trying hard to survive in a hostile environment where they have to endure all forms of persecution and segregation. However, in spite of these difficult circumstances, Muslim minorities in these countries have succeeded in ensuring their existence and securing a minimum of their own social life.

What is worth noting in this regard is that, in addition to maintaining strong ties with Islamic countries, Muslim minorities have contributed to spreading Islam in host countries and to the rise of Muslim communities among native populations. What is even more remarkable is the fact that most of these new Muslim converts are intellectuals, including eminent scholars and thinkers. These have embraced Islam as a religion out of conviction, because they have reached the conclusion that it is the only way for them to save themselves from the anxiety of unbelief, the evil of wealth worship, and the dangers of social degradation and moral degeneration. These self-converted Muslims were certainly impressed and seduced by the strength of Islam's religious and moral principles, the validity and relevance of which is continually confirmed by new scientific evidence.

The existence of these dynamic Muslim minorities in different parts of the world has contributed to the emergence of a global conception of Islam, based on faith in God, reconciliation, and permanent and genuine peaceful co-existence. However, no matter how great the efforts made by these truly Muslim minorities, the principle of Muslim solidarity among the members of the Umma requires that the leaders of Islamic countries should lend a helping hand to their brethren everywhere. This support does not have to be financial in character. It can also involve cooperative actions aiming at setting up private and specific educational systems to enable them to improve their Islamic education, to learn a minimum of the language of the Qur’an, to preserve their identity, and to perform their acts of devotion properly.

ـــــــــــــــ

(42) Accepted by consensus.

(43) Cf. Al-Munqithu mina Al-Dalaal. The quoted statement is not a Prophetic tradition, but a saying by Ali (May God be pleased with him). Cf. Al-Zurqaanii's Mukhtasar Al-Maqaasid Al-Hasanah, p. 205.

(44) Daru Taarudi Al-Aqli wa-l-Naqli, Vol. 1, p. 160.

(45) Faslu Al-Maqaal, p. 631. Cairo : Dar Al-Ma’aarif.

(46) Al-Muqaddima, p. 826.

(47) Al-Muqaddima, p. 827.

(48) Taarud Al-Naql wa-l-Aql, vol. 1, p. 4.

(49) Taarud Al-Aql wa-l-Naql, vol. 1, p. 8.

(50) Cf. Al-Tasawwuf, by Abu Al-Alaa Afiifi, pub. By Daar Al-Maarif, 1962.

(51) Al-Risaala, pp.1-2.

(52) Al-Risaala, p. 31.

(53) Ibid., p.45

(54) Ibid., p.105

(55) Ibid., p.151

(56) Ibid., p.158

(57) Ibid., p. 31.

(58) Ibid., p. 32

(59) Al-Risaala

(60) Cf. Ibn Taymiyyah's Al-Istiqaama, Vol. 1, p. 216.

(61) Al-Ihyaa, Vol. 5, p. 2494

(62) This Hadith is produced by Al-Tirmidhii on the authority of Abu Saiid. Cf. Al-Iraaqi's commentary on Al-Ghazaali's Al-ahyaa, Vol. 2, p. 1170.

(63) The Hadith “Among my Umma, there are experts of Hadith, teachers and theologians ; and Omar is one of them”. is produced by Al-Bukhaari on the authority of Abu Hurayra ; and is also produced by Muslim on the authority of Aisha. Cf. Al-Iraaqi's Takhriij ahaadiith Al-Ihyaa, Vol. 3, p. 1387.

(64) Al-Ihyaa, Vol 4, p. 1386.

(65) Al-Ihyaa, Vol. 4, p. 2056.

(66) Ihyaa Uluum Al-Diin, Vol. 1, p. 60.

(67) Al-Istiqaama, Vol. 1, p. 89.

(68) Ibid., Vol. 1, p. 116.

(69) Ibid., Vol. 1, p. 115.

(70) Al-Istiqaama, Vol. 1, p. 115.

(71) Al-Istiqaama.

(72) Mukhtalif Al-Hadith.

(73) Sahiih Al-Bukhaari

(74) Produced by Imaam Maalik in his Muwattaa, on the authority of Abu Al-Zinaad, Al-Aaraj and Abu Hurayra.

Publications of the Islamic Educational‭, ‬Scientific and Cultural Organization‭