Contents

Chapter two:

Islamic Education : Views of Medieval Philosophers of education

2.1. Ibn Maskawayh, Ibn Siinaa, and Ibn Khalduun : A Summary of Their Views

Muslim thinkers and philosophers played a great part in the development of Islamic education programmes and in spelling out the role of education in child growth. In addition, they treated of the various branches of study and discussed teaching methods as well as the issue of appropriate pedagogical tools. However, although some of these scholars' views are well-known to the specialists in the field of Islamic education, we nevertheless believe that contribution made by Abu Omar Ibn Abdulbarr Al-Namri, though remarkable in many ways, fails to give these views the importance they deserve.

For this reason, we have attempted to provide in this chapter a focused survey of such views, relying on Al-Namri's major work, Jaami Al-Ilm Al-Shariif wa Fadlih (The Comprehensive Book of the Noble Science and its Virtue).

It is a fact that Abu Omar Al-Namri was not the first Muslim scholar to have been concerned with the question of Islamic education. Contemporaneous with him were two scholars, both counted among the most distinguished Muslim philosophers, who devoted much of their work to the study of Islamic education, its means, and its objectives. For instance, Ibn Maskawayh paid special attention to the moral aspect of education. Thus, in his commandments to the seeker of wisdom, he says that the initiate should cleanse his heart of all forms of vice, just as the farmer cleans his land by uprooting wild herbs and plants before he sows the seeds in it. Furthermore, he points out that the gist of wisdom consists in possessing laudable qualities and virtues. Also, in his Kitaab Al-Siyyaasah (The Book of Politics), Ibn Siinaa emphasizes the virtues of group education and the importance of cultivating friendly relationships among learners, for, in his opinion, this enables the child not only to imitate his classmates, but also to compete with them. Moreover, Ibn Siina underlines the necessity of taking into consideration the child's natural inclinations, disposition, and aptitudes in the learning process.

Other educational issues were treated of before Al-Numari by two other scholars, namely Muhammad Ibn Sahnuun and Abu Al-Hasan Al-Qaabisi. These two scholars were primarily concerned with the functions of education from the point of view of the Sharia. For instance, in his Adab Al-Muallimiin (The Teachers' Code of Conduct), Ibn Sahnuun addresses issues pertaining to what, in his view, is permissible (yajuuz) or reprehensible (makruuh) in the teaching of the Holy Qur’an, and discusses the rules and regulations concerning such matters as vacations, gifts given to teachers by their pupils on the occasion of religious feasts, the teacher's seal, which marks the pupil's completion of the process of learning the Holy Qur’an, and the celebration of this event by the pupil's parents, in addition to the questions of how the learner should behave toward the Qur’an, how he should erase the learned verses off his slate, and so on.

Al-Qaabisi's treatise is somewhat a more detailed version of Ibn Sahnuun's treatise, with an addendum. Thus, after discussing at a great length the rules and regulations treated of by his predecessor, Al-Qaabisi adds a chapter treating of man's moral obligations toward his dependants.

Among the most notable scholars that came after Al-Numari were Ibn Hazm, Al-Ghazzaali, and Ibn Khalduun.

Ibn Hazm is known to have been the author of the clearest and most comprehensive education programmes. As Ihsaan Abbaas has reported, “Ibn Hazm's views on education are based on the one major principle that underlies Islamic education as a whole, namely the belief that the best of all sciences is that which leads to salvation and grants success in the Eternal World. This sublime science consists in the study of the Sharia”. This, however, does not mean that Ibn Hazm was of the opinion that other forms of science should be neglected. On the contrary, he believed that every form of knowledge has, besides its own intrinsic value, the virtue of taking its seeker one step further towards attaining the supreme knowledge ; which means that, in Ibn Hazm's view, all types of knowledge (or sciences) function together to serve the Sharia. Therefore, there is not one form of knowledge, or science, that deserves to be neglected. On the contrary, the student should in principle be versatile, learning about each discipline as much as his intelligence, abilities and aptitudes can allow him.

Ibn Hazm distinguishes seven stages in the learning process. During the first stage, the student learns writing and reading skills. The reading list at this stage should be limited to one sole book, namely the Holy Qur’an. During the second stage, the learner studies grammar, language, and poetry. The student is assigned a limited reading list consisting of books relevant to the subjects studied and is not supposed to read any additional works as he is not, at this stage, required to be thoroughly knowledgeable in these subjects. Rather, he is expected to learn just enough to be able to familiarize himself with the Supreme knowledge. The suggested reading list at this stage includes such works as Al-Waadih (The Obvious) by Al-Zubaydi, Khalq Al-insaan (The Creation of Man) by Thaabit, and others.

The third stage involves the study of Mathematics. Two books are assigned at this stage : Euclid and Al- Majsati. The fourth stage involves the study of Logic and Natural Sciences. In addition, the student acquires specialized knowledge concerning the characteristics of the atmosphere, animals, plants, minerals, and anatomy.

During the fifth stage, the student studies history, both ancient and modern. During the sixth stage, he gets immersed in intellectual questions of a philosophical nature like : Is the world new or ancient ? Is prophecy possible ?

Ibn Hazm reserves the seventh and final stage for the study of the Sharia, which includes Quranic studies, the study of Prophetic tradition (Hadith), Islamic jurisprudence (Fiqh), and scholastic theology (Ilm Al-Kalaam).

However, Ibn Hazm does not clearly say whether these learning stages occur gradually and successfully, or parallelly and simultaneously. This aside, the programme proposed by Ibn Hazm surpasses all other programmes in that it includes in the same curriculum both ancient and useful sciences for the purpose of achieving a better understanding of the Sharia. By so doing, Ibn Hazm seems to have anticipated an answer to the crucial question of how to train scholars that can meet the requirements of our present time without neglecting our Islamic scientific heritage(7).

As for Al-Ghazaali, he provides a taxonomy of the various types of science (or branches of study) and defines them in terms of their uses and functions. Initially, he distinguishes two major categories : religious sciences (Shariya) and non-religious sciences. By “religious sciences” he refers to what is learned from the Prophets, whereas by “non-religious sciences” he refers to those disciplines towards the learning of which we are guided by the mind, such as Mathematics, or by experiment, such as Medicine ; or by the hearing, such as Fiqh. Al-Ghazaali further subdivides non-religious (or secular) studies into three categories : (a) those which are considered as a collective duty (i.e. a must); (b) those which are regarded as a virtue (i.e. desirable) ; and (c) those which are considered blameworthy (i.e. undesirable)(8). Referring to the role of education in shaping up the personality of the child, Al-Ghazaali notes that “The child is like an unpolished, natural gem which you shape into any form you wish, and on which you can engrave anything you like”(9).

In his Muqaddima, Ibn Khalduun reformulates most of these ideas and suggests the following classifications of fields of study (or sciences) : (a) Those that are sought for their own sake, such as legal sciences, natural sciences, and theological sciences; (b) Functional sciences, like the study of the Arabic language (i.e. Linguistics), Mathematics, and Logic. Concerning teaching methods and pedagogy, Ibn Khalduun recommends the principle of gradation, i.e. a systematic progression from the easier to the more difficult, in accordance with the principle of brevity and with emphasis on specific functions and objectives in the early stages of the learning process(10). Ibn Khalduun also emphasizes the important role that study trips play in the acquisition of knowledge(11).

However, while the views of Muslim educationists tend to agree with respect to the basic principles of education, they clearly disagree with regard to the objectives of education. Concerning the latter point, we can distinguish three tendencies associated with three different groups of scholars. The first group consists of those who consider that the purpose of education is to preserve the Sharia. The main representatives of this group are Ibn Sahnuun, Al-Qaabisi, and their followers. These scholars are concerned, in their work, with the ethics of the teaching profession, with special emphasis on juristic rules and regulations that govern it. A summary of the Malikiite legists' views regarding education is provided by Ahmed Ibn Jumua Al-Maghraawi in a book entitled Jaami Jawaami Al-ikhtisaar wa-l-Tibiyaan fi maa Yaridu bayna Al-Muallimiin wa aabaa Al-Sibyaan (Lit. The most concise collection and explanation of what occurs between the teachers and the pupils' parents).

The second group of scholars focus on the ethics of education and its fundamental principles. The main representatives of this group are Ibn Maskawayh, Ibn Siinaa, the Fraternity Group known collectively as Ikhwaan Al-Safaa, and Al-Ghazaali.

The third group are concerned with recording the pedagogical observations that are fit to help the teacher in selecting the best teaching methods and pedagogical tools in order to make his teaching both enjoyable and useful. The main representatives of this group are Ibn Khalduun, Ibn Shumaa and Al-Zarjuuni.

2.2. A Brief Review of Abu Omar Ibn Abdulbarr Al-Namri's Views

Al-Namri's principal objective is to devise a teaching method that would ensure efficient training for his contemporary experts in language and Tradition. However, his work transcends this main objective and provides a more comprehensive theory of education. Thus, in addition to establishing a taxonomy of scientific disciplines, or branches of knowledge, he treats of the main juristic rules and regulations pertaining to the pursuit of knowledge and discusses the legists' views concerning each branch of study as well as the moral principles that govern the conduct of both the teacher and the learner. Finally, he suggests a number of efficient methods and strategies for acquiring knowledge and retaining it through memorization and permanent revision, explaining how mental growth can be achieved through practising independent judgement on the basis of analogy and philosophical speculation.

For Al-Namri, any educational system should aim at strengthening the individual's faith so as to ensure his well-being in the hereafter. This explains why Al-Namri puts theological studies at the top of all other disciplines. However, this does not prevent him from urging young learners to study secular sciences as well as professional, technical and artistic skills whereby man's life in this world can be improved. The author also threatens with punishment in hell anyone who uses his acquired knowledge to vie with other scholars, or to argue with insolent people, or to acquire a privilege. It is reported from Abu Hurayra (may God be pleased with him) that the Prophet (PBUH) said : “He who acquires knowledge not for the sake of God, but in order to get a reward in this life, will not find his way to Paradise”(12) .

As is clear from the above, the author believes that (a) theological studies are to be undertaken only for the sake of God; (b) whoever undertakes such studies for the sake of earthly gains goes astray; and (c) one of the collective duties in Islam consists in learning secular sciences to improve the life of people both individually and collectively.

In his work, Al-Namri does not confine himself to such common issues as the classification and ranking of the scientific disciplines in terms of their virtues, or the moral standards of the teacher and the learner. But he also discusses other issues which are traditionally known to pertain to the foundations of Islamic legislation, such as independent judgement (ijtihaad) and analogy (qiyyaas). The fact that he deals with these issues in this context suggests that he regards “ijtihaad” (i.e. endeavour in the exercise of independent judgement) as part of the educational process since it develops the learning faculties of both the student and the teacher as it develops the mind through the practice of meditation and contemplation.

Al-Namri shows little respect for those who, instead of using their brains in the exercise of independent judgement (ijtihaad), prefer to blindly and uncritically imitate their predecessors. For him, “There is no difference between an imitator (muqallid) and a beast led through a track full of stones and pitfalls”.

According to Al-Namri, analogy (qiyyaas) is an integral part of “ijtihaad”, for it constitutes the practical method whereby independent judgement (ijtihaad) can be verified. In this connection, Al-Namri advises : “When a controversial case arises, apply ijtihaad ; but take your time to look for adequate evidence and to understand the problem correctly and thoroughly. Then measure your deductions only against the Foundations. Never measure one branch against another, like a confused fool”.

Thus, for Al-Namri, ijtihaad requires knowledge of evidence and its rigorous examination until the general foundations are clearly singled out, so that branches (furuu), or derived laws, can be measured against them. Only then can a scholar be said to have completed a general educational model which, in principle, should involve : (a) The study and analysis of texts ; (b) Extrapolation of the general foundations ; (c) Inference, or derivation, of by-laws (or branches).

Following Abdullah Ibn Al-Mubaarak, Ibn Abdulbarr Al-Numari classifies the various stages involved in the learning process as follows : “The first step in the process of knowledge acquisition is intention (al-niyyah), followed by listening; then comprehension; then memorization; then application; and, finally, publication”(13.) It appears from Al-Namri's views that the term “Ilm” (science/knowledge) is used in two senses. In its first sense, “Ilm” refers to “the cognitive process”; in its second sense, it refers to “what is acquired”, i.e. the content, which he calls “Uluum” (i.e. sciences or types of knowledge).

2.2.1. Types of Knowledge(14)

Following scholastic theologians (al-mutakallimuun), Al-Namri characterizes knowledge as that which we are certain about, and which we hold to be evident and obvious. On this definition, Al-Namri distinguishes two types of knowledge : necessary (daruuri) , and acquired (muktasab). Necessary knowledge consists of that which is obvious and doubtless, including that which is reached through unimpaired senses (i.e. sensorial knowledge). Acquired knowledge consists of that which is reached through reflection, meditation and inference. The latter type includes two sub-types : covert/implicit knowledge and overt/explicit knowledge. The overt sub-type includes any form of knowledge that is close to the necessary (or evident) type.

Ibn Abdulbarr Al-Namri notes that philosophers and theologians divide knowledge into three categories : High, which consists of religious knowledge; Middle, which consists of secular knowledge; and Low, which consists of practical knowledge and skills.

2.2.1.1. Theological Knowledge, or the Uppermost Science

Muslim scholars distinguish three branches of theological knowledge. The first branch has to do with the Unity of God and sincere allegiance to Him. This form of knowledge can be achieved only through the assistance of the Prophet (PBUH) since he is the Messenger of God and the expounder of His intentions. This highest form of knowledge can also be obtained by following God's commands as they are made in the Qur’an, and which urge us to ponder upon His creation.

The second branch of theological knowledge is concerned with the source of religious facts and laws. This kind of knowledge is possessed by the Prophet (PBUH), at whose hand and word the faith was established. But it is also shared by his Companions, to whom he imparted it and who, in turn, transmitted it to other men of knowledge, namely the compilers of the Prophetic Tradition. Therefore, knowledge of the Prophetic Tradition requires knowledge of the men who collected it, their various groups and ratings, so that one can distinguish authentic Tradition from the non-authentic one.

The third branch of theology is concerned with the usages sanctioned by Tradition and also with scholastic theology. This branch includes the Tradition of the upright, the difference between what is obligatory and what is supererogative, the origins of rights and their association, and the distinction between consensus (ijmaa) and deviation (shudhuudh).

Philosophers assume that the highest form of knowledge consists of the study of analogy in divine sciences, which are higher in rank than natural sciences and astronomy, since they deal with such issues as the occurrence of the universe and its time, the question of similarity and its negation, in addition to other matters that cannot be grasped either through observation or through the senses. It is clear that Ibn Abdelbarr is referring here to such philosophical issues as are treated in Aristotle's Metaphysics. According to Ibn Abdelbarr, these metaphysical questions “have been made irrelevant by the revealed Scriptures”(15).

2.2.1.2. Worldly Knowledge, or Middle Science

This has to do with those areas where our knowledge of a given object brings about our knowledge of its equivalent or substitute both in terms of genus and type. This kind of knowledge applies to all natural sciences. However, Ibn Abdelbarr points out that philosophers distinguish four categories of middle science :

(i) Mathematics :

According to Ibn Abdelbarr, this branch of worldly science, which is indispensable to any knowledgeable person, involves knowledge of numbers, addition, multiplication, division, root extraction, power of numbers, the meaning of a line and a circle, extraction of geometrical figures one from the other, and so on.

It is worth noting that the author does not explicitly talk about algebra and equations, because, what he has in mind is the ancient Greek definition of Mathematics. On the other hand, the author's use of the phrase “extraction of geometrical figures one from the other” may be understood as referring to the groups of sciences that have been derived from geometry.

(ii) Astronomy :

The author notes that this science studies the motion and revolution of the stars, the signs of the Zodiac, the difference between the day vault and the night vault, and computes the distance between each country and the Equator in relation to the North Star, on the one hand, and the eastern and western horizons, on the other. It is also concerned with such celestial phenomena as the birth of the new moon and its evolution, the eclipse of the sun and the moon, as well as its size and degree in each country, the intensity of the sunlight and moonlight, and the brilliance of stars in general.

Ibn Abdelbarr distinguishes between “astronomy”, whose main concerns, as they were known at his time, are listed above, and “astrology”, which he defines as the study of the positions and aspects of heavenly bodies with a view to predicting their influence on the course of human affairs. For Ibn Abdelbarr, the predictions made by astrologers are not acceptable to the mind, because they are not based on scientific evidence. In condemning the astrologers' practices, Ibn Abdelbarr cites the following Hadith : “I fear three things for my Umma after my death : inequity in its leaders, belief in stars, and disbelief in fate and divine decree”(16). In the same context, the author quotes the following advice by Omar Ibn Al-Khattaab (may God be pleased with him) : “Learn from the stars just that which will guide you in the darkness of the seas and of the earth, but nothing more”.

(iii) Medicine :

According to Ibn Abdelbarr, Medicine is a branch of science that studies “the characteristics of plants, trees, water, minerals, as well as their essence, taste, and odour, in addition to their basic constituents and components. It also studies the specificities of animals and the characterization of bodies, instincts and organs, and accidental anomalies. It attempts to understand the benefic effects of exercise and rest, the types of drugs and medication, in addition to medical care and management”. Judging from Ibn Abdelbarr's definition of Medicine, it seems that this branch includes the following subjects :

* Science of the Earth, Geology, Chemistry, Botany ;

* Biology ;

* Microbiology and Physical Anomalies ;

* Effects of the Climate on Organisms ;

* Effects of inactivity and Physiotherapy ;

* Medical Treatment and Drugs ;

* Diet and Health Care.

(iv) Music and Entertainment :

According to Ibn Abdelbarr, this branch studies “the composition of tunes, melodies, and the sound patterns produced by wind instruments, in addition to the rules and regulations pertaining to the various types of entertainment”, For Ibn Abdelbarr, the phrase “types of entertainment” includes dancing and acting which, according to him, are banned by all religions(17).

2.2.1.3. Low Science

According to Ibn Abdelbarr, this category of science has to do with the acquisition of such skills as swimming, horsemanship, clothing, cosmetics, decoration, and calligraphy.

2.2.2. The Seeking of Knowledge

Before he discusses any topic, Ibn Abdelbarr usually provides a number of texts from the Qur’aan and the Tradition that are relevant to the issue at hand. In the chapter devoted to the pursuit of knowledge, he provides a set of Prophetic statements (hadith) to the effect that the pursuit of knowledge is a duty of every individual Muslim. Thus, according to Ibn Abdelbarr, the Prophet (PBUH) said :

“Acquire knowledge, for its acquisition for the sake of God is a form of veneration of God ; The seeking of knowledge is a form of worship ; its revision is a way of Glorifying God ; Travelling in quest for knowledge is a form of Jihaad (holy war against ignorance and paganism as a religious duty) ; To impart acquired knowledge to those who have it not is a form of charity and almsgiving ; And to offer it generously to those who seek it is a form of sacrifice”(18). Other relevant traditions include the following :

* Whoever follows a road in pursuit of knowledge, God will pave for him a way to Paradise.

* Whoever goes on a journey in quest of knowledge shall be blessed by the Angels and protected by them ; and his means of subsistence shall be increased.

* The learning of one chapter in any field of knowledge is worthier in the eyes of God than a thousand prayers performed voluntarily.

* Whoever seeks knowledge and succeeds in obtaining it, God will ensure him two rewards ; and whoever seeks knowledge and fails to obtain it, God will ensure him one reward(19).

We have listed here only a limited number of the Prophetic statements (traditions) quoted by the author for the purpose of exhorting Muslims to seek knowledge. For Ibn Abdelbarr, the following Quranic verse confirms that the pursuit of knowledge is a religious duty : “And the believers should not all go out to fight. Of every troop of them, a party only should go forth, so that those who are left behind may gain sound knowledge in religion, and that they may warn their folk when they return to them, so that they may beware” (IX : 122).

It is also reported that Ishaaq Ibn Raahawayh, on the force of this Quranic verse, considered the pursuit of knowledge as a religious duty, on a par with the duty of Jihaad. However, Imaam Maalik pointed out that the pursuit of knowledge is not an individual duty, but a collective one, to be performed according to religious and temporal needs(20).

On the basis of the above, it is clear that one of the most highly valued acts of devotion consists of the believer's pursuit of knowledge for the purpose of comprehending his religion, appreciating its benefits for him, exploiting the earth and its resources so that he can be adequately equipped and fully prepared to face his enemies.

After having discussed the religious status of seeking knowledge and underlined its necessity and urgency in Islam, the author, relying on his personal experience as well as on the views of earlier scholars, tackles a number of basic pedagogical rules pertaining to such questions as the age of learning, where to seek knowledge, endurance and patience in the process of learning, teaching methods and learning strategies, in addition to the rights and duties of the scholar. The author's views on these issues can be summarized as follows :

2.2.3. The Appropriate Age for Seeking Knowledge

Though Ibn Abdelbarr agrees, in principle, with the view that the learning age extends from cradle to grave, yet he concedes that the best period for seeking knowledge is childhood. In this regard, Ibn Abdelbarr quotes a number of authorities. Thus, according to Al-Hassan Al-Basri, for instance, “Learning Tradition in childhood is like engraving on stone”, For Abu Hurayra (May God be pleased with him), “He who acquires knowledge in his childhood is like someone who makes tattoos on a stone ; and he who acquires knowledge in old age is like someone who writes on the water surface”(21) Also, Alqama is reported to have said : “What I learned when I was a young man is still as fresh in my memory as if it were recorded on a sheet of paper”.

Ibn Abdelbarr also quotes a number of poets, such as Khalaf Al-Ahmar, who said :

The bending of a stick when it is still tender

Is not the same as its bending when it is dry.

Or Saabiq Al-Barbari, who wrote :

Instruction may prove useful to the juvenile,

But it is pointless to teach the elderly.

Tender branches will straighten up if you alter their shape,

But if you straighten up dry branches, they will break.

Or Naftawayh, who sang :

I see that I forget whatever I learn in old age,

Though what I learned in childhood I never forget.

Real knowledge is acquired in youth,

But real wisdom is only earned in old age.

If a teacher cut open a young heart,

He would find knowledge engraved in it as on stone.

Learning in old age is an aberration

When one's heart, hearing and sight, are all worn out.

2.2.4. When to Seek Knowledge

On the authority of Anas Ibn Maalik, the author quotes the following Prophetic Traditions :

* Seek knowledge even in China, for the pursuit of knowledge is the duty of every individual Muslim.(22)

* Whoever sets forth in pursuit of knowledge, his undertaking remains for the sake of God until he returns home(23).

The author also cites testimonies by leaders of theological schools. For instance, he reports from Maalik Ibn Anas that Said Ibn Al-Musayyab admitted that he used to walk days and nights in quest of one single Prophetic tradition. Al-Sha’bi is reported to have said that “If a man travelled from the extreme north of Syria to the extreme south of Yemen in order to hear a word of wisdom, I would not consider his journey to have been in vain”. Also, Bishr Ibn Ubeidallah Al-Hadramii is reported to have said that he used to ride from one country to another in order to hear one single hadith. In the same connection, the author relates the story of Abu Ayyuub, who journeyed from the Medina to Egypt in order to meet Oqba Ibn Aamir and hear from him a Prophetic tradition relative to covering up for a Muslim. Tradition has it that when Abu Ayyuub arrived at his destination, Oqba Ibn Aamir came out and said to him: “He who covers a Muslim's point of shame will be covered up for by God on the Day of Judgement”. And Abu Ayyuub instantly returned to the Medina without even unfastening his camel's saddle(24).

This is how Muslim scholars of yore used to seek knowledge ; they used to travel from the north of Mesopotamia to the south of Yemen, and from Andalusia in Spain to the Orient in pursuit of knowledge, wisdom and education.

2.2.5. Perseverance and Endurance in the Pursuit of Knowledge

It is the duty of every Muslim to persevere in the search for knowledge, regardless of difficulties and hardships. In this connection, the author reports from Jaabir Ibn Abdillah the following Prophetic tradition : “One of the sources of piety consists in adding to your knowledge something you didn't know before. And unless you keep adding to it, your knowledge will be deficient”(25).

Acquiring more knowledge demands a great deal of stamina and patience. In this respect, Imaam Maalik, though he was fortunate enough to have both wealth and excellent teachers in the Medina, used to say : “It is difficult to become a scholar without experiencing some degree of poverty in the process”. Also, tradition has it that Rabiia sold all his possessions, including his furniture, for the sake of knowledge. Thus, according to Sahnuun, learning is not for him who eats his fill or cares much about his attire. In this sense, Ibn Abdelbarr composed a poem from which we quote the following :

Knowledge will never be acquired at leisure,

Or by leading a life full of fun and pleasure.

The end of the learning process is like lactose,

Though at the beginning it may taste like cactus.

2.2.6. How to Seek Knowledge

In this connection, the author provides a list of directives and recommendations derived from tradition, proverbs, maxims and Arab lore. According to Ibn Abdelbarr, the learner should be armed with patience and should never get tired of asking for clarifications so as to be certain that he has understood the matter correctly. In the learning process, the student must progress carefully and gradually so as to be able to understand and assimilate the subject matter. Meanwhile, he must from time to time take a break and allow himself some fun and entertainment so as not to get bored. After having taken a rest, he should revise what he has learned and ponder upon it so as to understand and memorize it, and to perform in it with ease.

To lend support to these pedagogical recommendations, Ibn Abdelbarr quotes the following statement by the Prophet (PBUH) : “The cure for helplessness lies in asking.”(26) This Prophetic tradition, which urges the individual to ask in order to learn, is further supported by the following Quranic verse : “Ask the followers of the Remembrance if you know not !” (XVI : 43). Also, the author relevantly quotes the famous proverb, “Knowledge is a safe whose key is a question”, the meaning of which he further illustrates with the following lines from a poem by Umayya Ibn Abii Al-Salt :

Ugly ignorance may be killed with a question

If the seeker can see the object of his quest.

Persistent search and asking can cure from blindness,

Though of all cures direct observation is best.

The author employs a number of maxims, among which we quote the following, which is attributed to Ibrahim Al-Nakhii : “I ask like a fool, but I learn like a smart student”.

Ibn Abdelbarr Al-Namri advises us not to enter into conflict with learning and not to seek to possess it wholesale. Echoing Ibn Shihaab Al-Zuhri, he writes:“Do not learn knowledge wholesale; for, whoever attempts to possess it wholesale, will lose it wholesale. Instead, learn little by little, in the course of days and nights, for, as Ibn ‘Abbaas has suggested, “the term 'al-rabbaaniyyiin' (masters) refers to those scholars who master the minor elements of a subject of study before they tackle its major one”(27).

Indeed, perseverance in the pursuit of knowledge is a tedious exercise that requires some degree of diversion and mental recreation, which is a fundamental part of the Prophetic pedagogical tradition. Thus, according to Ibn Masuud (May God be pleased with him), The Prophet (PBUH) avoided preaching to his Companions too often and too long lest they should get bored”(28). Also, it is reported that Ali Ibn Abi Taalib (May God be pleased with him) used to say : “Round up these hearts and provide them with some entertaining wisdom ; indeed, the spirit gets just as tired as the body.”

According to Al-Qaasim Ibn Muhammad, the Arabs' tales and popular lore in general have a place in the Prophetic tradition. He reports that it was Al-Zuhri's practice to interrupt his lectures on Prophetic tradition and say to his audience : Come on ! Let us hear some of your poetry for a change. Indeed, the ear gets easily bored and the soul grows sour”.

This kind of recreation makes it possible for the learner to revise his lessons with renewed pleasure, for revision of acquired knowledge is a fundamental pedagogical rule on which Ibn Abdelbarr lays special emphasis, thereby making two crucial points. The first, which has to do with what is nowadays called “association of ideas”, is expressed in Ibn Masuud's own terms as follows :“Revise Prophetic traditions in groups, for they excite one another”. The second point is illustrated by Al-Khaliil Ibn Ahmad's advice : “Be more intent to revise what you have learnt by heart than to review the contents of your books”.

Thus, revision is the best method of prevention against forgetfulness. For this reason, Al-Nakhii advises that “After having heard a Prophetic tradition, we should relate it to someone, even to a non-interested audience”. In this connection, Ibn Abdelbarr recites the following poetic verses :

If a scholar finds the sharing of knowledge sore,

Or, out of self-conceit, would not learn any more,

He will end up an empty-headed boar.

Many a hoarder of knowledge, in many a science,

Adds to his hoarding, as days pass, more ignorance.

Revision of internalized knowledge is meant to reinforce memorization and to deepen awareness of what has been learned. It is a commonly known fact that Muslim educators laid great emphasis on this process. However, it should be noted that they did not view learning as a process whereby the individual human being records information in his memory without understanding it- like a donkey transporting books on its back. On the contrary, what is meant by learning is acquisition of knowledge for the purpose of making good use of it, or for enjoying it, if it is of the literary type ; or for applying it efficiently and successfully, if it has to do with trades and skills.

To conclude this paragraph, it would be appropriate to quote the following statement by Ibn Abdelbarr : “The noble scholar is the one who writes down the best of what he hears, memorizes the best of what he has written down, and transmits the best of what he has memorized”.

2.2.7. The Rights and Duties of Scholars

Scholars succeed to Prophets. According to Ibn Abdelbarr, a genuine scholar is one who is endowed with wisdom : he adorns himself with its rules ; he abides by them and teaches them to those who seek wisdom; he treats everybody with indulgence, modesty, and equity.

In his work, Ibn Abdelbarr provides many Prophetic traditions and famed proverbs that extol the virtues of scholarship and confirm its prominent status in Islam. Thus, in addition to the Quranic verse : “Say (unto them, O Muhammad): Are those who know equal with those who know not ?” (XXXIX : 9), the author cites the following Prophetic traditions :

* Lo ! There is no envy except in these two cases : a man to whom God gave wealth, and a man to whom God gave wisdom. The first used his wealth to save people from disaster, while the second used his wisdom in his judgements and taught it to other people(29).

* When God intends good for someone, He instructs him in religion(30.)

* The best form of worship is the study of Fiqh(31).

* A useful believer is seventy times worthier than the believer who devotes his life to worship(32).

* On the Day of Judgement, scholars can intercede with God after the Prophets(33).

However, Ibn Abdelbarr concedes that efficiency of theological knowledge depends on action and sincerity. The following lines, which the author has quoted from a poem by Ahmed Ibn Bishr, express the gist of his view:

The worthiest scholar is praised for his piety and sincerity,

And the worthless is blamed for his envy and depravity.

The author goes at length in blaming the evil-doers among scholars, of whom it is said that they shall be the first to be judged on the Day of Judgement, before even the idolators.

Since the expert of theology enjoys the status of God's guardian on earth, he should be fully aware of his responsibility and deliver his trust. If he conceals his knowledge, God will bridle him with a bridle of fire. If he does not use his knowledge to defend the cause of the oppressed, he will be like someone who drains rain water with manure, to prevent it from watering plants and helping them to grow. No one will be in a worse position on the Day of Judgement than the scholar who has not enabled others to avail themselves of his knowledge.

The scholar who practices teaching as a profession should be absolutely clear and certain about what he transmits to his students in terms of knowledge, in accordance with the following two maxims : First, the scholar should be a specialist in one specific field of knowledge; in addition, he must be multidisciplinary, with a fair grounding in other related fields. To illustrate this point, Ibn Abdelbarr quotes Al-Asmaii's remark:“Whenever a multidisciplinary scholar argued with me, I defeated him; but whenever I argued with a specialist in one field, he defeated me”. Second, a scholar should not be pretentious, as evidenced by the following poetic verses :

He who claims abilities which he has never owned,

Will have his shame by examination revealed.

His posture in the domain of knowledge is a sad case,

Like a donkey taking part in a horse race.

Furthermore, Ibn Abdelbarr considers that modesty and fairness are prerequisites of scientific integrity. Therefore, he believes that the scholar's shunning of the expression “I don't know” constitutes a fatal mistake, because it exposes his most vulnerable spot. To illustrate his notion of “fairness”, the author cites a number of relevant examples from Islamic tradition, including the following occurrence : ‘Omar Ibn Al-Khattaab is reported to have spoken to his audience thus :“Do not increase women's dowries beyond 40 ounces, even if the woman happens to be the daughter of the clan leader (meaning Yaziid Ibn Al-Husayn of Banii Haarith) ; and if anyone goes beyond this limit, I shall have the surplus taken away and thrown into the treasure house”. Then a woman with a flat nose stood up from the women's row and said :“That is none of your business !” And when ‘Omar asked :“Why ?”, she answered :“Because God the Almighty says : And if you have given one of them a tremendous sum of money, take nothing from it” (IV : 20). On hearing this, Omar said :“A woman got it right, and a man got it wrong”(34).

Fairness and patience are fundamental requirements for the success of any teacher in his mission. In his work, Ibn Abdelbarr deplores the lack of equity in the domain of scholarship and quotes, in this connection, the complaints made in this regard by Maalik Ibn Anas. Moreover, Ibn Abdelbarr devotes a whole chapter to the phenomenon of disagreements and conflicts among scholars and their criticism of one another. The author cites a large number of cases from various parts of the Islamic world to illustrate this sad state of affairs which he condemns strongly. Thus, although he disagrees with Imaam Maalik regarding the latter's criticism of Muhammad Ibn Ishaaq, Ibn Abdelbarr does not attempt to correct the critical opinion expressed by Said Ibn Al-Musayyab with regard to Ikrima, protector of Ibn Abbaas, or to rectify what Hammaad said concerning the scholars of Hijaaz. But he does provide an example of satiric verse by a Kufic poet to illustrate what Kufic scholars thought of their Medinian colleagues :

Do not embarrass a Medinian with questions on religion;

Knowledge about musical instruments is all he can provide.

True Knowledge of this faith is to be found in no region,

Except in Kufa, where true theologians reside.

Ibn Abdelbarr believes that such lapses are due to rivalry, anger and envy, which are common features of the human nature in general(35).

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(7) See Dr. Ihsaan Abbaas's Investigations, pub. by Aal Al-Bait Foundation.

(8) Cf. Al-'ihyaa’, vol. 1, p. 65.

(9) Cf. Al-'ihyaa’, vol. 3, p. 1474.

(10) Muqaddima, p. 1009.

(11) Ibid., p. 1017.

(12) Produced by Abu Daawuud and Ibn Baaja.

(13) Jaami Bayaan Al-'Ilm Al-Shariif wa-l-Fadlih, vol. 2, p. 115.

(14) Ibid., vol.2, p. 37.

(15) Ibid., vol. 2, p. 38.

(16) Ibid., vol. 2, p. 39.

(17) Ibid., vol. 2, p. 38.

(18) This Hadith was co-produced by Ibn Hiyyaan and Ibn Abdelbarr. See Al-Iraaqi's marginal commentary on Al-Ihyaa, vol. 1, p. 20.

(19) Ibid., vol. 1, p. 14.

(20) Ibid., vol. 1, p. 10.

(21) Ibid., vol. 1, p. 82.

(22) Jaami Al-Uluum, vol. 1, p. 7. This Hadith is mentioned by Al-Haafiz Al-Mundhiri and related by Ibn Maaja in his Sunna in the following form: “The pursuit of knowledge is the duty of every Muslim”.

(23) Jaami Al-Uluum, vol. 1, p. 224.

(24) Jaami Al-Uluum, vol. 1, p. 94.

(25) Ibid., vol. 1p. 95.

(26) Related by Abu Daawuud, Al-Daraqutni, and Ibn Maaja.

(27) Sahiih Al-Bukhaari, The Book of Exegesis.

(28) Sahiih Al-Bukhaari.

(29) Accepted by consensus.

(30) Related by Muaawiyya and accepted by consensus.

(31) This is a reference to the tradition :“The best way to worship God is to be versed in religion. Indeed, one single expert in Fiqh is tougher for Satan than a thousand ordinary worshipers. Lo ! Everything has a pillar; and the pillar of this Faith is Fiqh”. This version is produced by Al-Tabaraani in his Al-Awsat, and also by Abu Bakr Al-Ajri and Abu Nuaim, respectively. This Hadith is reported by Abu Hurayra and collected by Al-Tirmidhi and Ibn Maaja. Cf. Takhriij Ahaadiith Al-ahyaa, vol. 1, p. 11.

(32) This tradition was produced by Abu Nuaim, on the authority of Abu Hurayra. Abu Yalaa reported a similar hadith on the authority of Abdelbarr Ibn Awf. Cf. Al-Takhriij, vol. 1, p. 12.

(33) “Three can intercede with God on the Day of Judgement : Prophets first, then scholars, then martyrs”. Cf. Ibn Maaja, vol. 2, p. 4313.

(34) Jaami Al-Ilm Al-Shariif wa Fadlih, vol. 1, p. 131.

(35) Ibid., vol. 2, p. 132.

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