Contents

Chapter One :

Islamic Education between the past and the present

1.1. The Era of the Scripture and Wisdom

The Prophet's Mission at Mecca consisted in calling for the worship of the One God, Lord of the heavens and the earth. In the early years of his Mission, the Prophet's preachings consisted mostly in exhorting the inhabitants of Mecca and of the neighbouring tribes, especially his own family and closest friends, to worship Allah Alone and not to attribute to Him any associate, warning them that idols and divining arrows are but abominations and Satanic devices and that burying girls alive was a sin and a great offence.

The teachings that Al-Arqam Ibn Abi Al-Arqam gave at Mecca included the foundations of Islam and its basic principles, a brief summary of which was presented by Jaafar Ibn Abi Taalib to Al-Najaashi, King of Abyssinia, when Jaa’far briefed him about Qureysh : “They were pagans, given to worshipping idols, eating carrion, committing abominations, severing kinship relations, burying their maidens alive, and the stronger among them encroached upon the rights of the weaker. Then God sent unto them the Messenger whose noble descent, truthfulness and sincerity, and his trustworthiness and honesty are well-known to them. He urged them to come home to God, to worship Him Alone, to repudiate that which their fathers used to worship instead of God, and which consisted of stones and idols. He also admonished them to be truthful and trustworthy, to maintain kinship relations, to be good neighbours, to cease violating all that is sacred, and to stop murdering one another. He equally forbade them obscenities and false testimony, the devouring of the orphans' property and the slandering of chaste women. Finally, he ordered them to worship God Alone, without associating with Him any partner whatsoever, to pray and to fast”.

The Prophet (PBUH) suffered a great deal at the hands of Qureysh, who cruelly persecuted his poorer disciples and did all they could to ridicule his teaching and to humiliate him. Then, his Lord granted him permission to emigrate and he ordered his followers to leave for the Medina, where they received a hearty welcome by their Muslim brethren who gave them protection and accommodation. Consequently, the Prophet (PBUP) moved to the Medina, where the Sharia would be perfected. There, the Prophet went on for ten years exhorting people to do works of charity and to be kind to their kinsmen, and warning them against immoral reprehensible actions and injustice.

At this period in history, education used to derive its values and principles from the divine revelation and the Prophetic tradition. The Messenger was not only a guardian over the people, but also their advisor, guide and teacher. He used to read to his Companions verses from God's revelations, thereby making them grow in faith by teaching them the Scripture and its wisdom.

The teachings of the Scripture included the rules of the Sharia and the methods appropriate for ensuring the individual Muslim a happy life in this world and in the hereafter. Muhammad (PBUH) was a Messenger and a Preacher, addressing ordinary human beings. He also knew that his audience included the powerful and the humble, the righteous and the sinful, and the generous and the parsimonious. Therefore, he appealed to them tactfully and wisely through his kind exhortations.

The Messenger (PBUH) established in his Mosque a pulpit for guidance and advice from which he regularly preached to his Companions, who listened to the Word and followed the best thereof, and warned those who followed the invocation of God and feared God in their hearts. In his wisdom, he always avoided mentioning those at fault by name, preferring to refer to them indirectly, using the expression “maa baalu aqwamin...?” (i.e. What about some people... ?/ Why do some people think... ? (2).

The Prophet's initial education programme consisted in teaching the Holy Qur’an to his literate Companions, who recorded the Quranic text on slates, parchments, stones and bones, and then memorized it in small portions so that they could understand its meaning. In fact, committing the text of the revelation to memory was considered a most meritorious activity. Thus, if someone succeeded in memorizing “The Cow” Surah, for instance, he was held in high esteem.

The Prophet (PBUH) selected a group of literate men as scribes for the revelation. The team consisted of the four Caliphs, Ibn Masuud, and a small group of Ansaar (Supporters from Yathrib), including such names as Ubay Ibn Kaab, Zayd Ibn Thabit, and Abu Zayd Al-Ansaarii.

These scribes also learned the Prophet's Hadith (Tradition), but they did not write it down, for fear that it might be confused with the revelation. Some of the Prophet's Companions, however, collected a wealth of Hadith, like Abdullah Ibn Amr Ibn Al-Aas, Abu Hurayra (Abdul-Rahmaan Ibn Sakhr Al-Dawsii), Aisha (daughter of Abu Bakr), Abdullah Ibn Abbaas, Anas Ibn Malik (who remained in the Prophet's company for ten years), Jabir Ibn Abdullah, and Said Al-Khudri.

The Prophet's Companions' education was not confined to the study of the Holy Qur’an and the noble tradition. The Prophet himself was a living model in their midst, so his actions and decisions constituted a school, providing clear and explicit examples of practical applications of the divine legal system, the Sharia, and perfecting the noble traits of character. That is because God had intended His Messenger (PBUH) as a good example for all those who desire the favour of Allah and look forward to the Last Day.

This Muhammedian school combined the teaching of the revelation, the wisdom of His Messenger, who does not speak out of his desire, together with the individual's development through continuous worship, compassion, kindness and equity in behaviour, not only in what concerns the performance of acts of worship, but also in what concerns the individual's conduct in his everyday interactions and transactions.

In that brilliant era, when the light of faith shone in the hearts of the Prophet's Companions, people enjoyed God-inspired peace of mind ; their hearts were united and they became one nation and Umma, striving for the common good, enjoining righteousness and forbidding indecency ; a nation not to be diverted from matters of the hereafter by worldly possessions and concerns, but also a nation that fully enjoyed its share of this life. Thus, the Muhaajiruun (Emigrants) practised their trade just as the Ansaar did their farming with the full knowledge and consent of the Prophet (PBUH), who used to explain to them what obligations they owed to God, to their relatives and to their own selves, in addition to their duty to preserve life, protect their property and defend their honour. He also used to take from them alms, which the Almighty reserved for “the poor and the needy, and for those employed in the collection and distribution of alms, and those whose hearts are to be comforted, and for the freeing of slaves, and for those burdened with debt, and for those striving for the cause of Allah, and for wayfarers” (IX: 60).

When the Prophet died, his Rightly Guided Caliphs assumed the responsibility after him in succession. Al-Siddiiq (Abu Bakr), the first Caliph, followed the Prophet's course and never deviated from it. Thus, he fought the apostates, compiled the Qur’an, consolidated the foundations of the Caliphate, and appointed as deputy Caliph Al-Faaruuq, Omar Ibn Al-Khattaab, who further stabilized the pillars of the Islamic state, launched conquests, and attended to the organization of the Islamic educational system.

It was under Omar's rule that children began to be educated formally at what might be described as “schools” ; and history has recorded how much mutual love and affection there was between Caliph Omar and school children. For instance, it is reported that, one day, the school children heard that Caliph Omar was coming home from a long journey, and they were all also happy and excited that they rushed out to meet him outside the Medina in order to welcome him. Omar was so pleased to see them that he decreed Thursday a holiday for the school children to rest and play.

After Omar came Caliph Othmaan Ibn Affaan, Thu Al-Nuurayn, who continued the work of his predecessors. Among his many good deeds was the systematization of the reciting of the Holy Qur’an and its transcription into several copies at the hand of some of the Prophet's Companions who were renowned for their memorization of the revelation and their authentication of documents. The result of this process was the production of a master copy of the Holy Qur’an, whose authenticity was, and has always been, unanimously recognized by all Muslims. Through this great deed, Caliph Othmaan spared Muslims a religious strife and sedition whose dangerous consequences for Islam no one can imagine.

However, Caliph Othmaan himself did not escape from sedition, though of another kind, which subjected him to the tricks and schemings of villains. But he stood his own and held fast to the principle of the Caliphate until he got unjustly assassinated. Then, eventually, the responsibility of Muslim leadership passed into the hands of Ali, son of Abu Taalib, and Prophet's cousin, son-in-law, and father of his two most cherished grandsons. Caliph Ali fought hard to set people on the straight path and to lead them according to the principles which he had inherited from the Messenger of Allah, Muhammad son of Abdullah son of Abdulmuttalib (PBUH).

As Caliph, Ali fought as hard for the perpetuation of the Prophetic tradition as he had done at the time of the Prophet (PBUH) for the propagation of Islam. His determination was such that he was discouraged neither by those who plotted against him nor by those who waged a war against him. During his Caliphate, Ali gave great importance to education, not only in areas of general knowledge, in which he himself was proverbially competent, to the extent that when faced with a problem to which they could not find a solution, people used to say : “Here is a problem for which there is no Abu Hasan” (referring by “Abu Hasan” to Ali (may God honor him !)). Indeed, Ali was a perennial source of rhetoric and wisdom. Grammar historians are unanimous that it was Ali who suggested to Abu Al-Aswad Al-Duali the idea of writing a grammar of the Arabic language, and provided him with a set of basic rules, for the purpose of preserving the language of the Holy Qur’an.

The first century of Hegira was hardly over when the seeds of the Prophetic education began to flourish and bear fruit. In the second century of Hegira, Islamic sciences reached a high degree of maturity and development.

During all this period, the mosque was the centre of learning and study. However, the fact that priority was given to religious studies does not mean that other fields of study were banned from the mosque. Indeed, tradition informs us that Omar Ibn Al-Khattaab once blamed Hassaan Ibn Thaabit for having recited verses of poetry inside the mosque, and the poet's response was as follows : “I recited poetry here in the presence of him who is better than you”. So Omar kept silent, and the poet went on singing :

How great a band it was that with which I caroused

One day, at Jalaq, in former times.

The sons of Jafna, around their father's grave gathered ;

The tomb of Maria's son, the generous, the best.

They swooned so that when their dogs growled in the dark,

They couldn't ask about the approaching spectre.

This kind of educational system was open on a permanent basis to both the grown-ups and the young, to both men and women. At the time of the Prophet (PBUH), women used to go to the mosque on a specific day of the week. During the time of the Caliphs, a special row was reserved for them in the mosque, where they discussed matters of Islamic law and gave their own opinions.(3)

1.2. The Masters' Epoch

The first century after Hegira was an epoch characterised, on the one hand, by direct Prophetic guidance, and, on the other hand, by dissemination of knowledge hand in hand with the expansion of Islam through conquest. This happy course of things continued through the second century, which witnessed the rise of masters, or leading scholars (Imaams) in every domain of Sharia. It was the epoch of the Seven Readers, whose readings of the Qur’an were agreed and accepted unanimously by the Umma. During this period, the disciplines concerned with the study of Hadith witnessed a real revival due to the process of collecting, recording, and documenting the Prophetic tradition. This huge effort bore its fruit in the form of impressive compilations of Hadith. The most famous and authoritative of such compilations are, respectively, Sahiih Al-Bukhaarii and Sahiih Muslim. In the domain of Islamic law and jurisprudence, a number of scholars distinguished themselves as leading authorities. These distinguished authorities established various schools of Islamic law and jurisprudence that are unanimously agreed upon by Muslims.

It was also during this epoch that a number of authoritative books, which are still regarded as basic references in many fields of study today, were written, such as Imaam Maalik's Al-Muwattaa (on Fiqh and Hadith), Al-Shafii's Treatise (Risaala), on Islamic fundamentals, Imaam Ahmad's Al-Musnad, Ibn Ishaaq's Al-Siira (i.e. biography), and Siibawayh's Al-Kitaab (The Book) on grammar.

This all-encompassing and universal revival was due to the development of a sophisticated system of Islamic education. It was a system rigorously governed by ethics and high moral standards. The Muslim scholar left his door wide-open to students, who would go to his house and learn from him. Very generously, the scholar imparted to students his knowledge in the fields of his specialty and expertise.

Then, as more cities were built or conquered, the Caliphs competed with each other in building grand mosques where learning circles were formed in various courses of study that were offered by eminent scholars, each in his own field of specialty so much so that it was common to find, in one mosque alone, over sixty masters lecturing to their respective groups of students at the same time. The most famous among such Great Mosques (or universities) were Al-Mansuur Mosque in Baghdad, the Amawi Mosque in Damascus, the Mosque of Cordoba in Muslim Spain, the Qarawiyyiine in Fes (Morocco), and Uqba Ibn Naafi's Mosque in Kairawan (Tunisia).

Besides these renowned Great Mosques, there were many other smaller mosques which were usually reserved for one particular master, and for the study of one specific doctrine. Also, some wealthy scholars used to build mosques next to their homes so that they could lecture to large audiences in their specific fields of specialty.

In the way of encouraging learning and competition among scholars, learning clubs were created in large numbers at the homes of Caliphs, senior government officials, notables, and even next to market places.

By the beginning of the third century AH, learning was no longer confined to religious sciences, for the Muslim Umma was ready and eager to grasp rational sciences as well. Thus, with the founding of Bait Al-Hikma (the Home of Wisdom) by Caliph Al-Rashiid, there developed great interest in translation as well as in the study of the Persian and Greek scientific heritage. Consequently, a wide range of new disciplines were studied, including Medicine, Logic, Mathematics, Astronomy and Astrology.

This education revolution generated a tremendous new intellectual activity which ultimately led to the birth of many different schools of thought and religious sects that got involved in heated dialectical argumentation over a wide range of issues pertaining essentially to religion and the foundations of Islamic jurisprudence. Obviously, this indicates that teaching and learning activities were at the time taking place in a healthy educational environment, characterised by freedom in every domain of knowledge and thought. This movement reached its zenith in the fourth century AH, when the supremacy of Islamic civilization in the domain of knowledge and science was established in all the continents that were known at that time.

1.3. State Schools and Quranic Schools

The fifth century AH witnessed a new development in the domain of education. The mosque ceased to be the sole place where higher education could be afforded. Nor were the masters' homes, or their private mosques, sufficient enough to provide appropriate education to growing numbers of students. Therefore, it was necessary to build public or state schools to diffuse different kinds of information and knowledge.

Some historians might believe that the state schools founded under the rule of the Saljuq King in AH 489 were among the very first of this type of schools. However, researchers have indicated that many Islamic schools had been founded prior to this date. In Nissaabuur, for instance, there were several institutions at which Abu Ishaaq Al-Shayraazi studied. Also, in Egypt, the Fatimides initiated in the fourth century AH a systematic and well-planned educational reform programme whereby schools were built in the vicinity of the Sultans' palaces for the purpose of propagating their own ideologies. Thus, in addition to Al-Azhar, which was founded in AH 361, the Fatimides' educational reform was crowned by their founding of Dar Al-Ilm (The House of Science) at the hand of the Fatimide governor, Al-Hakim Bi Amri-llaah, in AH 411, upon a decree issued to this effect by the vizier, Abu Al-Faraj Yaaquub Ibn Kalas. Though this institution was somewhat a copy of Bait Al-Hikma of Baghdad, it nevertheless had all the requisites of a university. Being superintended by a most senior lecturer (Daai Al-Duaat), this institution of higher education was meant to have a scientific vocation. Thus, in addition to the Fatimide doctrine, its programme of study included a wide range of scientific disciplines, or rational sciences, such as Logic, Geometry, Engineering, Astronomy and Astrology, Mathematics and Dialectics.

Educational programmes in the Fatimide era were reputed for including in their curricula a number of disciplines that were not taught elsewhere, namely Swimming, Horsemanship, and Military Studies. On the other hand, the Great Mosques of Cordoba, Fes, and Tunisia developed a well-organized and finely structured system of higher education with accurately and carefully designed programmes of study and a precise calendar for holidays, which transformed these centres of learning into real universities.

However, these innovations, though they preceded the establishment of state schools, do not in the least diminish the importance of Seljuk schools, which contributed greatly to the improvement of Islamic educational system by kindling the spirit of competition and rivalry between Muslim rulers as well as between the leaders of various Islamic schools of theology. For instance, the state school of Baghdad did not function until another rival school had been built in its vicinity and baptized “Mashhad Abi Haniifa” (lit. Abu Haniifa's view). This kind of rivalry was productive, in the sense that it made cities compete with one another in building schools for their leading scholars. It is worth pointing out, however, that at the beginning of this process, each school was established for a specific eminent scholar, known to be a leading authority in a specific doctrine.

Thus, it has been reported that the state school of Baghdad, for instance, was initially destined to Abu Ishaaq Al-Shiraazi, who eventually refused to teach in it ; and that the school of Nissaabuur was built for the Imaam of the two Holy Mosques, Abu Al-Maalii Al-Juwaynii, who taught in it the Shafiite doctrine for about 30 years.

Due mostly to the spirit of competition between dynasties and kingdoms, state-supported schools were built everywhere and in large numbers, especially in the main Muslim cities, such as Baghdad, Damascus, Cairo and Fes. Some of these schools were universally renowned for both their excellence and tolerance. For instance, the Mustansiriyya School, which was founded in Baghdad in AH 631, was renowned for being the only school where all Islamic theological doctrines were taught and studied without discrimination.

The system of public education started with the Quranic schools. Like the present-day primary schools, these were designed to provide basic education for children by enabling them to memorize the Qur’an and to learn the basic principles of Islamic faith. This type of education must have existed, under one form or another, at the time of Caliph Omar, as the occurrence referred to above seems to suggest. Sometimes such Quranic schools were created jointly by the children's parents, who would hire a teacher for their children. However, since some teachers would not readily accept payment for teaching the Holy Qur’an, the state intervened and started building Quranic schools which it supported financially. Thus, it is reported that the Umayyad Caliph, Al-Mustansir, created a large number of such schools in Muslim Spain (Andalusia).

According to Ibn Khalduun(4), two teaching methods were applied by Quranic school teachers, namely the Qarawiyyiine method and the Egyptian method. The Qarawiyyiine method consisted in teaching the Qur’an alone, without adding to it any other subject of study or even attempting to explain the meaning of the Quranic text to the learners. This method puts great emphasis on memorization at the expense of comprehension. The Egyptian method, by contrast, consists in teaching the Qur’an together with the basic rules of the Arabic language, in addition to providing relevant information on religious matters and other related disciplines which the young learner could understand and be proficient in.

1.4. Between Tradition and Modernity

At the beginning of the seventh century after Hegira, there occurred a series of dramatic and sudden events which crippled the progress of science and education in the Islamic world, and severely affected the course of Islamic civilization. The most dramatic of all those events were the destruction of the city of Baghdad by the Tatars, the weakening of Islamic presence in Andalusia, and the launching of the Crusades by Christian powers to win the Holy Land from Muslims. As a result of these events, the educational system became sterile, confined to old topics and methods, incapable of progress or self-regeneration.

Historians commonly refer to the five centuries that ensued as the epoch of decline and decadence. However, this overgeneralized judgement is unfair and inaccurate, for it overlooks the many intellectual and political achievements that were made during this period. For instance, in spite of all the criticism against them, the Ottomans were able not only to preserve the unity of Islam, but also to expand its influence to the heart of Central Europe. Also, during their rule, many encyclopaedic works, of great scientific value, were completed. Furthermore, many Islamic cities such as Cairo, Tunis, Marrakesh, Shinguit, and Sanaa, continued to play their dynamic role as centres of learning and culture. Thus, the schools of Qarawiyyiine, in Fes, Zaituna in Tunis, and Al-Azhar in Cairo maintained their role as strong fortresses of Islamic science and education.

Also, Mauritanian schools, known as “mahazras”, were unique in their genre , in that they adopted a system of education based on the principle of free choice. Within this system, students were free to choose the teacher they trusted, the books they wished to study, and the chapters they wished to focus on and learn. Under such a system, the qualified teacher had to prove his ability and readiness to teach all the subjects in the programme, which often consisted of such major Islamic disciplines as Quranic studies, Hadith (Tradition), Fiqh (Jurisprudence), and Arabic language studies. However, as the author has noted elsewhere(5), Islamic education remained confined to the study of traditional subjects and ancient legacy ; and the scholars who graduated from this system of education were not allowed access to positions of responsibility and leadership.

Colonial authorities allowed them access only to such positions as judge of the Sharia law, whose scope of competence and influence was rather limited, or teaching positions in the old traditional system. In fact, colonial powers established modern schools for the purpose of diffusing their own sciences, cultures and languages. Graduates of such colonial schools were allowed to participate in running the affairs of the country in a way which served the interests of colonial powers. Given this state of affairs, there was bound to be a division between those who graduated from traditional Islamic schools and those who graduated from modern schools, with the two groups accusing each other of ingratitude and intellectual inertia, respectively.

This situation generated a problem with three facets, as is reflected in the Muslim society's present attitude towards the issues of “decadence”, the value of “cultural legacy”, and the question of “interaction with modern science and technology”

The idea of “decadence” was initially introduced by Orientalists, and was later diffused by their disciples in coordination with the Jesuit movement in Syria and Lebanon, whose main concern was to emphasize and publicize the importance of modern renaissance, which they assumed /claimed to be of their own making. In so doing, they also exploited the Arab nationalist sentiment which flared up in the region, provoked by the evil practices of some Turkish leaders in Syria.

Our aim here is not to analyse historical and political events, but rather to make the point that we need to reconsider the history of Islamic science and education relevant to this period in order to present it from an Islamic perspective. Whatever the outcome of such a study might be, it is necessary for us to note the following facts : At a certain point in history, Islamic public schools ceased to play their educational role, and the process of scientific progress and technical innovation came to a standstill. This explains why the Islamic world could not, and did not, contribute to the making of the industrial revolution, which started in Europe and enabled the major European powers to dominate the so-called Third World, including the Islamic world, through direct colonization. As for the issue of traditional legacy, it would suffice to quote what Dr. Naasir Al-Diin Al-Asad said in this regard :

Thus, for this Umma, true learning was committed to the past, and had no relevance to the present. It consisted in learning texts and rules concerning occurrences and cases that were relevant at their time in the past, and which generated a fabulous legacy in terms of literature in the domains of theology and Fiqh that has no match in the history of any other nation. But the fact remains that this heritage is a thing of the past. Therefore, it cannot be regarded as something that is useful in itself, or as something that can be used on its own to relevantly account for the so-many occurrences and problems of the present. It remains a traditional legacy that we can report, talk about, or even be proud of, but nevertheless a legacy that has not moved an inch forward from the point where its original authors left it. Consequently, we would do it great injustice if we contented ourselves by merely repeating it, or, if on the assumption that it is applicable to the present, we proceeded to apply it to situations and contexts to which it is no longer relevant, without taking the trouble of developing it from inside so that it can live and grow in a renewable society that has its own specific needs and problems- needs and problems that did not exist in the past.(6)

Traditional Islamic canonical law (or Fiqh) involves two types of laws/rules : derived and basic. Thus, while most rules of the derived type apply to historical cases and occurrences that might never occur again, the texts relevant to basic rules are concerned with general principles whereby the expert of Fiqh (or Muslim jurist)can extrapolate judgements applicable to analogous or similar cases. It goes without saying, therefore, that in Islamic education, emphasis should be on the basic type of laws, and Muslim jurists should be urged and encouraged to make independent or collective judgements in accordance with the spirit of the Sharia, but allowing, at the same time, for innovation in the domain of branches and by-laws so that the individual Muslim can live in perfect harmony with his religion and his epoch at the same time. Moreover, given that, in the early periods of its history, the Muslim world achieved a high degree of development and civilization, and produced a fabulous legacy in all fields of knowledge where many eminent scholars distinguished themselves with their skill and expertise, it follows that the building of the future of the world should be done on the basis of a deep analysis and genuine appreciation of this legacy as it constitutes the source of the nation and its roots. Reliance on this heritage is crucial , especially in the domain of Islamic studies in general, and in the study of the Holy Qur’an and the noble tradition in particular. Concerning the study of secular sciences, however, we should by no means keep our faces turned to the back, with our eyes fixed on our past history. Rather, we should be concerned more with our present and be looking ahead, to build our future.

There is no doubt that we will continue to be proud of our eminent scholars, who distinguished themselves in such fields as Islamic jurisprudence, tradition, and philosophy of language. But it would not be of much use to us to continue celebrating the great achievements of Al-Kindi, Al-Bayruuni, Al-Ghafiqi, Al-Raazi, Ibn Siinaa, Ibn Roshd, Ibn Al-Nafiis, Jaabir Ibn Hayyan, Ibn Baaja, or Al-Khuwarizmi.

Our duty towards their legacy should consist in reviving the part of their work which is relevant to the culture of our time. Apart from that, anything would be useful only so far as it provides incentive to the Umma and strengthens its determination to move forward, bearing in mind, however, that “is considered a source of pride only that part of the legacy which is enjoyable”.

Finally, the question of interaction with modern science will be treated in detail in the chapter which deals with scientific models. Therefore, it will suffice here to recall the experiment undertaken in the 1960s by the Great Mosque of Al-Azhar, and which consisted in setting up an educational institution where modern sciences were taught and studied hand in hand with the traditional Islamic sciences. The experiment in question proved to be a great success and led to the creation of Al-Azhar University, which now includes faculties of theological studies, of Medicine, Engineering, and Astronomy. This experiment needs to be studied and evaluated in order to find out to what extent it has been successful and to what extent it can be applied elsewhere, or generalized.

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(2) The Prophet's expression “maa baalu qawmin... ?” is recurrent in the Prophetic traditions, including the following tradition, related by Abu Hurayra and produced by Muslim and Imaam Ahmed : “Why is it that some men keep insisting that you are different from me ? By God ! Had I had the opportunity, I would have proven to them that they are wrong.” (cf. Kanz Al-Ummaal fi Sunani Al-Aqwaal wa Al-Afaal, Vol. 1, p.132). Other examples include

(i) How about some people who talk... ?

(ii) What about some people who are staring at the heavens... ?

(iii) How about some men who seek to impose conditions which are not even in the Book of Allah... ?

(3) Kanz Al-Ummal, Vol. 1, p. 51.

(4) Muqaddima, p. 1010.

(5) Cf. Al-Shi’ru wa-l-Shu’araa fii Mauritania by Ould Bah.

(6) Publications of the Islamic Civilization Research Group. Jordan : Foundation of al Al-Bait.

Publications of the Islamic Educational‭, ‬Scientific and Cultural Organization‭