Ethical Issues in Cloning

In human distinction must be made between reproductive cloning aimed at the birth of identical individuals which in human has never been performed and non reproductive cloning limited to the in vitro phase. Also, distinction must be made between cloning by embryo splitting and cloning by nuclear  replacement. 

Human reproductive cloning has been totally banned by almost all organizations and even by Wilmut himself(76).

The reasons given for this total ban was basically a religious and an ethical one. For the Muslims procreation is restricted to occur only within the marriage contract between a wife and a husband within the frame of the family. No third party participates  in the process of procreation by providing an egg, a sperm, an embryo or even a uterus(7, 20 & 54). The genetic material of the offspring had to be inherited from both parents. It was felt that if cloning is allowed and widely practiced in its limited concept of producing a human being, it will break the family ties, genetic links between the offspring and both parents, would allow procreation in single women and would create a kios in the family structure. Furthermore, there are also other risks with cloning. The cloned individuals may have a shorter life span, may suffer from early ageing, and a greater susceptibility to cancer. There was also a concern about whether they would be fertile or not and if so whether they or their offspring would suffer from an abnormal rate of genetic abnormalities. Another worry was the cost of the procedere and it is likely to be immensely expensive as such attempt would require several eggs and an available uterus. Also many attempts will have to be done before success can be achieved. The issue of human responsibility and instrumentalization of human beings were other reasons for the prohibition of such technique(75).

The general opinion in the Muslim world today is that research on cloning in laboratory animals, which would add to our understanding of biological processes and contribute to human well-being, is encouraged. After enough animal experimentations ensure its safety, the technique may be applied in the human for alleviation of human sufferings and treatment of diseases such as correction of miochondrial defects. However, under no circumstances what so ever should it be applied to produce a genetically identical human individual by nuclear substitution from a human adult or child cell(75).

Human cloning may be performed in absolutely infertile married couples to overcome their infertility problem. Nuclear transfer from the husband’s somatic cell to the enunucleated ovum of the wife may be performed during validity  of the marriage contract. This scenario should only be restricted to very few cases which are not amenable to treatment by other simpler methods. This line of treatment should not be implemented except after enough animal data shows its efficacy, safety, and that no serious genetic alternations are likely to occur in such situation. However, one should not ignore that there is no consensus of opinion among the various religious bodies on this issue. Some see it as far fetched and not likely to happen in the near future and should not be done(75).

The gender implications of cloning human beings are likely to arise when the nucleus from the somatic cell of a woman is transferred to the enunucleated ovum of the same woman. This will allow procreation from a single sex which is unethical and not allowed in the Muslim world.

Should science prove in the near future safety, and efficacy of human cloning, societies would approve its application for therapeutic purposes but not for the production of a genetically identical human individual by nuclear substitution from a human adult or child cell.

Cloning of human beings raises concerns that warrant collaborative international actions. There should be legislation and guidelines which should be strictly binding to all centers where such research is conducted. There should be a mechanism of organizing supervision upon these centers which should be restricted only to very few centers of excellency. Very tight regulations concerning organization of work in these centers should be followed. These centers should also be non profit making research centers and should not be linked to commercial companies or medical industries(22, 67 & 75).

The World Medial Association issued a statement on cloning calling upon doctors engaged in research and other researchers to abstain voluntarily from participating in the cloning of human beings, until the scientific, ethical and legal issues have been fully considered and any necessary controls put in place(77).

The Federation International of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) Ethics Committee held a meeting in Cairo hosted by the International Islamic Center for Population Studies and Research, Al Azhar University during the period (5-7th March, 1998). Among other ethical issues discussed in this meeting, cloning was thoroughly discussed. The committee revised the issue in April 1999 and adopted the following ethical guidelines on human cloning(78).

With regard to reproductive cloning in humans, producing individuals by nuclear transfer cloning because they are genetic copies of identified adults does not respect human identity and individuality. It objectifies human beings, and as well as having unknown physical risks is likely to be psychologically harmful to individuals produced this way. The technique allows people with some predetermined characteristics to be made. This aspect means the technology can be used in an exploitive way (e.g. to produce a matched organ donor).

For infertile couples wishing to have families, there are other options (for examples, some new reproductive technologies, and adoption available). Permitting infertile couples to use reproductive cloning (by either cloning methods) to produce a child, breaches a natural barrier, which once passes, leaves no clear place to stop.

Although most people do not wish to see cloning permitted, there will be pressure favouring human reproductive cloning arising from specific personal and financial interests. Recently, in the USA someone announced opening of his clinic for reproductive human cloning. In setting policy, these pressures should not be allowed to override the larger communities interests.

Given the nature of societies, the lack of regulatory structures in most countries, and the fact that some individuals would benefit from instrumentalizing replicands, cloning for the purpose of implantation into the uterus for development of a pregnancy should be prohibited.

Non-reproductive cloning research using somatic nuclei transferred into human oocytes should only be permitted in a regulated and accountable manner in licensed facilities. Research to produce particular cell lines would be acceptable provided that development beyond fourteen days does not occur.

A woman who has a mitochonodrial defect, of necessity is at risk of passing this defect on to her offspring. Supplementation of the protoplasm of her oocytes by transfer of cytoplasm containing mitochonodria does not constitute reproductive cloning. However, if one of her somatic cell nuclei were used to insert into another women's oocyte, this would constitute reproductive cloning and be unacceptable.

Legislation of regulation prohibiting cloning to produce human persons (human reproductive cloning) is needed. However, it should be worded carefully so as not to prohibit other uses of cloning techniques in research. Such research promises to bring greater understanding of genetic control of differentiation, will contribute important knowledge, and ultimately be of benefit in therapeutic applications.

As cloning is an extremely sensitive issue and it is expected that the coming few years will witness great development in this field, it is important to be aware of the stance of concerned international organizations on this issue. The author therefore includes an appendix reflecting the documents issued on this topic by the other international organizations.

Recently the societal, medical and ethical implications of cloning were addressed at a conference held at the Royal Society, London stimulated by the Biomedical and Health Research Programme (BIOMED) of the European Commission(79). The Conference involved scientists, philosophers and lawyers in order to set up a synthesis of all the scientific and ethical arguments developed in the numerous discussion and declarations which both took place in the months following the birth of Dolly. Another meeting on the cloning Dilemma was held in Dubai, UAE during the period of April 4-5, 1998(75). The issue was discussed at length and the proceedings of the meeting should be published soon.