PART ONE 

THE CONCEPT OF ENVIRONMENT FROM AN ISLAMIC STANDPOINT

A. The Concept of Environment

Environment is defined  as the sphere or context where human beings live. This includes all the natural and human phenomena⁽¹⁾ that affect humans and are affected by them and from which they get their means of subsistence such as food, clothing, medicine and shelter and wherein they exercise their relations with their human and non-human fellow creatures.⁽²⁾ In a prominent environmentalist’s view⁽³⁾ : «The environment is a set of conditions, substances and interactions taking place in any sphere where life exists.

- Conditions include such climate elements as temperature, humidity, and light as well as cosmic states such as gravity.

- Substances comprise the earth and what is related to it like rock constituents, running water in rivers which fills the seas, and such life products as paper, fruits, wood, fur, meat and the like.

- As for interactions, they are of two kinds:

a) such physical interactions as chemical transformations;

b) vital interactions related to the growth of living organisms.

The scope of interactions can be local including the interaction between individuals and their surroundings. It can also be of wide scope as is the case with water circulation and the movements of wind. Similarly, the sphere may be limited or may expand to include all the vital surroundings i.e. the sphere where life exists, that of the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the lithosphere. This means that the environment is three-dimensional involving the ecological dimension, the socio-economic dimension, and the socio-cultural dimension (the system of values). This means that man lives in three environments(4)  interacting and affecting each other. They are:

The Vital Environment : 

This is the natural and original life environment which Allah created and wherein human beings are only one form among many others.

The Man-made Environment

It consists of things made by humans and introduced onto the environment.

The Social Environment

It is a system whereby human communities run their own social and economic affairs, consisting of social customs, administrative affairs, laws, and social as well as economic institutions.

The environment is looked at as a functional system which operates in a comprehensive manner via mutual relations between its organic and non-organic components. The environmental system has its inputs—carrying and storing—and its outputs such as energy and basic products, all of which operate in natural conditions. When the environmental system is upset by human beings, it tends to reorganize itself at first. Through the act of recurrence, plants tend to constitute a stable plant community according to the principle of flowing energy. Stability in ecological systems implies a dynamic balance between the input and the output of energy and matter.  

In the light of the foregoing definition of environment, it can be said that it is made up of two basic systems⁽⁵⁾ : the natural environment and the civilizational environment. 

The Natural Environment :

By natural environment is meant the earth, water, air, and living organisms, be they animals or plants. The definition also includes the different natural operations resulting from the interaction of the elements making up the natural system of human beings.

The Civilizational Environment

It refers to the rural and urban systems created by human beings in the natural environment; it includes buildings, streets, factories, agriculture, technology, social, economic, and developmental institutions and all other activities, all of which aim to meet the needs and desires of human beings in their daily lives. It also includes the means by which human beings deal with problems ensuing from their relations with the natural environment as well as the extent to which they respond and adapt themselves to these problems.

It is very difficult, indeed impossible, to separate natural systems from civilizational ones. Since their appearance on earth and through the various stages of their civilizational developments, human beings have affected most if not all the natural environments through their interaction with them. They have even managed to alter some of them. Nevertheless, as organic creatures, human beings depend on different environmental resources to meet their day-to-day needs in light, health, food, shelter, water, and air. 

The planet can be regarded as a complex system composed of four sub-systems: the earth system, the air system, the water system, and the vital system. Each of these basic subsystems is further divided into other subsystems interacting with each other in net-like relations as the following chart shows:

1. The Earth System:

The earth system is the upper crust of earth’s surface⁽⁶⁾ on which human beings live and interact with its elements. The depth of the crust that is important for human beings does not exceed a few or a hundred meters. It is at this level that we find all the minerals. The exception concerns artesian wells, which can reach 8 kilometers in depth, oil fields, and  mines. 

When Allah prepared the earth for human beings to live on, He made it suitable and adequate for life. He created trees and plants, and made rivers run for their sake. He put at their disposal daylight and night, the sun and the moon; He also bestowed them with the boon of rationality and put nature at the service of human beings. Allah said:

«Have We not made the earth as bed, and the mountains as pegs? and we have created you in pairs, and we have made your sleep as a thing for rest, and we have made the night as a covering, and we have mede the day for livelihood, and we have mede (therein) a shining lamp (sun), and we have sent down from the rainy clouds abundant water, that we may produce therewith corn and vegetations, and garden of thick growth» (Naba’ 1-16).

The Creator of the earth is Allah who said in His Holy Book: «I called them not to witness the creation of the heavens and the earth, nor (even) their own creation: Nor is it for Me to take as helpers such as lead (men) astray!» (Kahf, 51).

Allah created humans from earth, from clay, from mud molded into shape, from sounding clay like pottery; then He breathed into him the soul. The origin of human beings as well as their life elements come from earth, from clay. This is the fecund crust which provides all the necessary elements of life. Scientists have analyzed the human body and have found that it is made up of 16 elements⁽⁷⁾. The first element is oxygen and the last is manganese. The crust of earth is made up of the same elements, for the elements constituting the enriched clay are the same as those existing in the human body.

Allah ordered human beings not to do mischief on earth. He said in his Holy Book:

-«Do no mischief on earth, after it hath been set in order» (A’rãf, 56).

«Then is it to be expected of you, if you reject Islam, that ye will do mischief in the Land» (Muhammad 22)

«But they ever strive to do mischief on earth. And God loveth not those who do mischief» (Ma’ida 64).

Doing mischief on earth consists of : destroying the soil and establishing settlements on it, contributing to the erosion of the soil to its salinization, and to desertification, and not flattening the soil after the extraction of mines from it, etc. Skills and competence have grown among human beings more quickly than wisdom and rationality have.⁽⁸⁾

2. The Hydrological System:

This system comprises water in its three states: gas, liquid, and solid, and as it exists  in the air, on the surface of the earth, or underground⁽⁹⁾.

Water is mentioned in the Qur’an in 63 places⁽¹⁰⁾, which are classified under the following categories :

Water was the first thing to have ever existed

Allah said in His Book: «And His throne was over water—that He might try you, which of you is best in conduct» (Hud 7).

The Prophet PBUH said: «Allah was and there was nothing prior to Him; His Throne was over water; then He created earth and the heavens, and has everything written in His Book» (reported by At-tirmidh).

All Organisms Depend on Water:

Allah said: «We made from water every living thing» (Anbiyya’ 30)

Research has shown that 70 % of the constituents of the human body are from water. When this percentage diminishes, the human body is exposed to diseases. If it loses 20 %, the person in question will die⁽¹¹⁾. The origin of human beings is from water. Allah said in his Holy Book: «It is He who has created man from water. Then has He established relationships of lineage and marriage: For thy Lord Has power (over all things)» (Furqan 54).

Water is the Source of all Vegetation:

Allah said: «It is He who sendeth down rain from the skies: with it we produce vegetation of all kinds» (An’am 99). 

«We send down rain from the sky, and produce on the earth every kind of noble creature, in pairs» (Luqman 10).

Water is the Cause of the Diversification of Vegetation on Earth

Allah said: «It is he who sends down rain from the sky; from it ye drink, and out of it (grows) the vegetation on which you feed your cattle.  With it He produces for you corn, olives, date palms, grapes and every kind of fruit: verily in this is a sign of those who give thought» (Nahl 11).

«Seest thou not that God sends down rain from the sky? With it we then bring out produce of various colors» (Fatir 27)

Water is a Source of Sustenance

God said: «He sends down rain, and brought forth therewith fruits for your sustenance» (Baqara  22)

Water is a Source of Drinking

It is a stern advice to mankind. Allah said:

«See ye the water which ye drink? Do ye bring it down (in rain) from the cloud or do we? Were it our will, we could make it salt (and unpalatable): Then why do ye not give thanks?» (Waqi’a 68-70).

Water Helps us Remember Allah

Allah said:

«and when harm touches upon the sea, those you call upon vanish from you except Him» (Israa’ 27)

«and the dwellers of the Fire call to the dwellers of the paradise : pour on us some water» (A’araf 50).

«Any others that they call upon besides hear them no more than if they were to stretch forth their hands for water to reach their mouths. But it reaches them not» (Ra’ad 14).

Water: Promises and Threats

Allah said:

«Say (O Muhammad) : Tell me ? if (all) your water were to sink away, who then can supply you with flowing water» (Mulk 30).

«And We send down water from the sky according to (due) measure, and We cause it to soak in the soil; and We are certainly able to drain it off (with ease)» (Al Mu’minun 18)

Water is a Source of Fear and Hope

Allah said:

«It is He who doth show you the lightning, by way both of fear and of hope: it is He who doth raise up the clouds, heavy with (fertilizing) rain!"»(Ra’d 12)

«And among His signs, he shows you the lightning. By way both of fear and of hope, and He sends down rain from the sky and with it gives life to the earth after it is dead» (Rum  24).

 Human Beings are in Need of Preserving Water in Wells or Springs throughout the Year.

Allah said:

«And We send down water from the sky according to (due) measure, and We cause it to soak in the soil; and We are certainly able to drain it off (with ease)» (Al Mu’minun 18).

«And we produce therein orchards with date-palms and vines, and we cause springs to gush forth therein» (Ya-sin 34).

«We poured out rain from the skies in abundance, and gave (fertile) streams flowing beneath their feet» (An’am 6)

Water is a Cause of Destruction

Allah said:

«So we opened the gates of  the heaven with water pouring forth, and we caused to gush forth from the earth. So the waters met for a matter predestined  (Qamar 11-12)

«And leave the sea as a furrow (divided); for they are a host (destined) to be drowned» (Dukhan 24)

   Water is a Source of Punishment on the Day of Judgement

Allah said:

«In front of such a one is hell and he is given, for drink, boiling fetid water» (Ibrahim 16)

«And be given, to drink, boiling water, so that it cuts up their bowels (to pieces)?» (Muhammad 15).

Water is a Source of Demographic Growth

Allah said: «Now let man but think from what he is created! He is created from a drop emitted—proceeding from between the backbone and the ribs» (Tariq 5-6).

Water is a Means of Transportation

Allah said: «It is God Who has subjected the sea to you, that ships may sail through it by His command that ye may seek of His Bounty, and that ye may be grateful» (Jathiya 12).

Water is a Source of Food

Water is a permanent source of water food and animal proteins. Allah said in His Book:

«Lawful to you is the pursuit of water-game and its use for food—for the benefit of yourselves» (Ma’ida 96).

«Nor are the two bodies of flowing water alike,- the one palatable, sweet, and pleasant to drink. And the other, salt and bitter. Yet from each (kind of water) do ye eat flesh fresh and tender, and ye extract ornaments to wear» (Fatir 12).

Water heralds Glad Tidings, Mercy, Cleanliness and is a Source of Life for Mankind

Allah said:

«And He who sends the winds as heralds of glad tidings, going before His mercy, and We send down pure water from the sky» (Furqan 48).

«He caused rain to descend on you from heaven to clean you therewith» (Anfal 11)

In the Qaf Surat Allah said : «And We send down from the sky rain charged with blessings, And We produced therewith gardens and grain for harvest» (Qaf : 9)

Water Washes away Sins 

Abu Hurayra said that the Prophet (PBUH) said : «If a believer performs his ablutions and washes his face, any sin that he has watched with his eyes is washed away  with water (or with the last drop of water), and if he washes his hands, any sins that his hands have committed will go away with water or with the last drop of water, and if he washes his feet, any sin committed by his feet is washed away with water or with the last drop of water, until he comes out purified of his sins» (narrated by Muslim, Kitab At-tahara)⁽¹²⁾

Do human beings not learn from all these uses of water? Do they not envision the repercussions of polluting water sources and the resulting diseases both now and in the future? Allah said in His Holy Book: «Truly it is not their eyes that are blind, but their hearts which are in their breasts» (Hajj: 46). Allah also said: «They have hearts wherewith they understand not, eyes wherewith they see not» (Ar’af : 179).

3. The Atmospheric System

The earth is surrounded by the atmosphere or what is known as air. The air is basically composed of oxygen and nitrogen. It extends hundreds of kilometers above the ground. The higher we get, the lesser is the density of the air.

The atmosphere is made of three major interconnected parts :⁽¹³⁾

a- Troposphere or the lower part of the air. It extends from the earth’s surface to about 12 kilometers high into the atmosphere. Most of the atmospheric changes we feel on a daily basis take place in this part. The higher we get in this part, the lower temperature degrees decrease get. Most water vapor, oxygen, carbon dioxide are contained in this part. Besides, numerous human activities are concentrated in this layer.

b- Stratosphere: the layer which exists above the troposphere. It is the outer part of the air which surrounds the earth. It stretches from about 12 to about 80 kilometers above the earth. This part is characterized by the absence of any climatic changes or storms. It contains a belt known as the ozone layer whose function is the protection of the earth’s surface from the hazards of the ultra-violet rays.

c- Ionosphere : This part is about 80 to 360 kilometers or more above the stratosphere. It is marked by the lightness of its gases. Hydrogen and helium prevail in this part. Allah is right when He said : «So He completed them As seven firmaments in two Days, and He assigned to each heaven its duty and command» (Fussilat : 12).

He also said :

 «God is He Who created seven firmaments and of the earth a similar number» (Talaq : 12)

«He Who created the seven heavens one above the other» (Mulk : 3)

«The seven heavens and the earth, and all beings therein declare His glory» ( Bani Israel : 44)

«For He gave order and perfection to the seven firmaments» (Baqara : 29)

«Your Guardian-Lord is God Who created the heavens and the earth in six Days» (Ar’af : 54).

In its lower part, the air is made of many gases, water vapor and small particles (dust and frizzle). The dry unpolluted air is composed of 78% of nitrogen, 21% of oxygen and about 9% of argon. The rest is made of meager gases such as carbon dioxide, neon, helium, hydrogen, methane and others. The air also contains various amounts of water vapor ensuing from vaporization from water surfaces, soil, and plants. A big quantity of dust exists in the air, and can be seen by the naked eye. The existence of dust differs from one  place to another. Great amounts of dust are found in places bordering deserts especially at particular times of the year. Dust is also found in bigger amounts in lower areas.

The structure of the air that surrounds the earth has remained intact, despite the vital activities that take place on the earth’s surface. Human beings, like animals, consume oxygen in their vital activities and exhale carbon dioxide. But plants use the carbon dioxide in the operation of photosynthesis. Unlike human beings, plants take carbon and emit oxygen. If the percentage of carbon dioxide increases in the air⁽¹⁴⁾, the surplus melts in seas and oceans and interacts with the calcium salts which have melted in them. Then it sediments as calcium carbonate (which form calcareous stones). These natural interactions, known as geochemical cycles, have led to a state of balance in which the air has maintained its composition stable throughout the ages.

Hence Allah invites us to think about and contemplate the miracle involved in the creation of the heavens and to use reason in appreciating this miraculous deed. Allah, glorified be He, said :

«What! Are ye the more difficult to create or the heaven (above) ? God hath constructed it : on high hath He raised its canopy, and He hath given it order and perfection.» (Nazi’at : 28)

«Not for (idle) sport did We create the heavens and the earth and all that is between» (Anbiya : 16)

«And We have made the heavens as a canopy well guarded : yet do they turn away from the signs which these things point to» (Anbiya : 32)

«Not without purpose did We create heaven and the earth and all between !» (Sad : 27).

However, since the time human beings have known fire and have used different energy sources, and with the advent of the scientific revolution, huge quantities of gases and other substances have started to be emitted in the air. Consequently, an increasing disorder has occurred in the natural balance that Allah had created in the atmosphere. In this respect, Allah said :

«Our Lord! Not for naught Hast thou created (all) this! Glory to Thee! Give us salvation from the penalty of the fire.» (Al Imran : 191)

4. The Vital System :

It includes the flora and fauna on the earth and in water⁽¹⁵⁾. The climate and water elements, the diversity of soil and of the natural appearance of the earth contribute⁽¹⁶⁾ to the formation of a host of environmental plant systems. Likewise, the interaction between water, soil and natural vegetation plays an important role in the distribution of natural animal life.

Human life and that of other organisms depends on vegetation resources. The food that we eat is made of vegetable products such as wheat, corn, potatoes, rice, etc…

Allah said : «And We send down from the sky rain charged with blessing, And We produce therewith Gardens and Grain for harvests» (Kahf : 9)

«With it He produces for you corn, olives, date-palms, grapes» (Nahl : 11)

«Do they not look at the earth, - how many noble things of all kinds We have produced therewith» (Shu’araa : 7)

Human beings also live on animals which, in turn, feed on plants. Warming and providing light to our homes and the energy necessary for our factories has always depended on coal produced from forests. It also depends on petrol, a substance having its origins in plant and animal geological sediments. Similarly, the wood from which the furniture of our homes is manufactured, and the silk, cotton, garment from which our clothes are made, as well as numerous other drugs, would not have been available had not plants existed.

The various kinds of forests existing in the world contain the most important vegetation resources. Forests are the sources of many products. Besides wood and fuel, human beings get acids, fodder, glue, alcohol, anti-freezing liquids, paints, disinfectants, oils, paper, drugs, dissolvents etc… from them. It is estimated that about 4500⁽¹⁷⁾ manufactured substances  are partly or totally obtained from forests.

It is true that forests are the lungs of our planet. They preserve the necessary gas rates in the atmosphere. They also play a major part in rainfall.⁽¹⁸⁾ It has been noticed that the amount of rainfall has decreased during the last 26 years to an average of 24 % of what it was before the logging of forests in the Republic of Columbia.

Animal Wealth

Animals are a direct source of food for human beings. Moreover, they depend on some animals help also in agriculture or as means of transportation. Allah said :

«And cattle He has created for you (men) : From them ye derive warmth and numerous benefits. And of their (meat) ye eat.»(Nahl : 5)

«And (He has created) horses, mules, and donkeys, for you to ride and use for show, And He has created (other) things of which ye have no knowledge» ( Nahl : 8)

Human beings benefit either directly or indirectly from land animals and their products. Among the land animals found in the Islamic World, we could cite the Arab deer, the Ufri deer, the Kufi deer, which exists in abundance in the mountainous areas of the Maghreb, the Wadihi, which lives in the South-Eastern region of the Arab Peninsula, the Arab Tohr, which lives on the borders between Tunisia and Algeria, the red wolf and the stripped hyena, the desert lynx, the tiger and many beautiful birds with bright colors, ostriches and predatory birds. A number of animals and birds have faced extinction either directly as a result of indiscriminate hunting or indirectly as a result of the destruction of the environment suitable for their living and reproduction, or still as a result of the clearing of woodland for agriculture and grazing. This has greatly affected the biodiversity system and has jeopardized the environmental balance which Allah had created.

Water Resources    

Water plays a major role in satisfying  many human needs in meat. Moreover, quite a few materials are extracted from the sea environment such as salt, and such minerals as manganese chloride, potassium sulfate, calcium sulfate, pearls and coral. Allah said : «It is He Who has made the sea subject, that ye may eat there of  flesh that is fresh and tender, And that ye may extract therefrom ornaments to wear.» (Nahl : 14)

The sea is also a source of drinking water obtained through desalination plants, as well as a tourist recreational resort. Fish constitutes 44% of the economy of 25% of the world population that is living on coasts ⁽¹⁹⁾. Oceans also contain a big quantity of fossil energy such as oil and natural gas. Statistics carried out in 1992 found that 36.5 billion tons of oil⁽²⁰⁾ and about 21.4 trillion tons of gas were extracted from different seas of the world. To this we should add the electrical energy generated from waves and currents.

The abuse of water resources in all its various kinds has resulted in the shortage of different kinds of fish products. Human waste has also led to the pollution of seas and oceans. Allah, Most High, said :«Mischief has appeared on the land and sea because of (the meed) that the hands of men have earned.» (Rum : 41). Thus, the protection of the sea environment, as an important natural resource for human beings, from pollution and depletion has become an Islamic responsibility. The aim is that this sea environment keeps fulfilling the function  for which it was created by Allah. The basic elements of the natural environment and their sub-categories interact with each other in such a way that each element affects the other elements of the same system, thereby affecting the whole system. For instance, temperature, one element of the air system, affects the water system i.e. oceans, rivers and seas. The result is that water vapor rises to the high layers of air and is borne by winds in the form of clouds from the areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure and falls in the form of rain. The kinds of plants existing on earth are determined by the degree of temperature found in each area. In areas where temperature degrees are high and heavy rains fall like the equator, tropical forests grow constituting thereby an autonomous ecosystem. Tropical forests and the terrestrial animals living in them are considered as part of the vital system. Thus, the elements of the natural system are interconnected and interacted. This interaction is activated and made use of by mankind by dint of technological potentialities and other elements existing in the civilizational environment.

Now we shall look at the elements of the cultural environment and how they interact with those of the natural environment.

C. Elements of the Cultural Environment :

The cultural environment comprises five major elements :

1. The technological system

2. The social system

3. The political system

4. The economic system

5. The cultural system

Technology, nowadays, means the use of scientific applications to exploit environment resources on the one hand and to solve environmental problems and address environmental dangers on the other (what is called environmental redress). In other words, science and technology nowadays, i.e. all the progress made by science is manifested in new technological inventions. Hence, these inventions help science progress. It is noticed that the span⁽²¹⁾ separating new scientific discoveries and their implementation is getting shorter and shorter. Photography, for instance, was used industrially 112 years after its scientific discovery, the production of the telephone took 56 years, that of radio 35 years, radar 15 years and the transistor 5 years.

The speed characterizing these inventions nowadays and which is increasing day after day should draw our attention to the necessity of taking care of human beings, the inventors of technology. It should also draw our attention to the necessity of giving importance to thought, science and invention, to devising unconventional solutions to environmental problems and to facing social, economic and environmental change ensuing from implementing developmental projects.

The Role of Technology in Environmental Interactions

Technology has developed and entered into the social fabric and everyday life of human beings so much that it has become impossible to put the clock back or do away with technology. To right the wrongs of the environmental disorder resulting from the implementation of technology in industry and agriculture, we invent new technologies or develop available technologies, as if modern societies have become addicted⁽²²⁾ to technology. The only panacea is more and more technology.

- Some technological devises seem at first to be of great benefit and damage-free. Yet, with the development of scientific and technological knowledge, it has become obvious that they have serious damages unknown to us. Think only of the invention of the chloroflurocarbons and  the discovery later on that it damages the Ozone layer.

- The idea that technology provides solutions to every social, environmental or industrial problem is gaining more ground in modern times. However, experience has shown that these problems are related to the interactions between human beings, nature and technology. It has also shown that technology can offer only temporary solutions. Indeed, permanent and decisive solutions lie in correcting the interactions between the three systems. Social solutions related to human behavior and popular acceptance are more durable solutions.

Islam urges Muslims to seek science and make it a practicable reality in their life. Allah said :

«Know, therefore, that there is no god but God, and ask forgiveness for thy fault and for the men and women who believe». (Muhammed : 19).

Islam accords priority to science and the essence of science is fearing Allah and believing in Him as the only Deity. Allah said : « Those who truly fear God, among His servants, who have knowledge.» ( Fatir :  28)

Islam called for developing a scientific mindset based on the following foundations⁽²³⁾:

- To refuse any claim not substantiated by proof. Allah said : «Bring forth your argument, if ye are telling the truth!» (Naml : 64)  Argument here is proof. But argument can also be something witnessed or experienced : «Bring me a Book (Revealed) before this, or any remnant of knowledge (ye may have), if ye are telling the truth» (Ahqaf : 4)

- To refuse conjecture in situations requiring certainty and science. Allah said : «But they have no knowledge therein. They follow nothing but conjecture, and conjecture avails nothing against truth.» ( Najm : 27)

- To reject feelings, gifts and personal considerations. Islam requires neutrality and objectivity. Allah told the Prophet : «But if they hearken not to thee, know that they only follow their own lusts : And who is more astray than one who follows his own lusts, devoid of guidance from God ?» ( Qasas : 50)

- To resist stagnation, imitation and subservience to others be they parents and ancestors or lords and nobles or laymen. Allah said : «They say : «Nay! We shall follow the ways of our fathers : what even though their fathers were void of wisdom and guidance ?» ( Baqara : 170)

- Contemplate, think, and consider:  «the government of the heavens and the earth and all that the God hath created» (Araaf : 185); and man himself: «As also in your own selves : will ye not see?» (El Zariyat : 21); and the movement of human history and the fate and  lives of nations: «And were the ways of life that have passed away before you : travel through the earth and see what was the end of those who rejected truth» (Ali Imran : 137)

- The Prophet (PBUH) urged to acquire useful knowledge and to travel for the sake of learning. Anass, May God be pleased with him, reported that the Prophet said : « Whoever went out seeking knowledge, is out for Allah’s sake until he comes back» (Narrated by Tarirmidhi and was considered a good Hadith). Abi Dardaa, May God be pleased with him, said: « I heard the Prophet (PBUH) say : ‘Who treads a way seeking with it knowledge, Allah makes his way to paradise easy, for the angels put down their wings as a sign of that they are pleased with his deed; all the creatures in the skies and the earth and even whales in oceans ask forgiveness for the scholar; the scholar’s grace in comparison to that of the ignorant is akin to that of the moon in comparison with the stars; scholars are inheritors of prophets and prophets did not inherit a Dinar nor a Dirham but they inherited science; thus whoever gets it gets a plentiful share of it.» (Narrated by Abu Dawud and Tarmidhi.)⁽²⁴⁾

It goes without saying that when we transfer technology, we should harness it to avail our local situation, and lessen its damages to the environment as far as possible, and taking into consideration our demographic, economic and social conditions.

2. The Social System

By the social environment⁽²⁵⁾ is meant the part comprising individuals and communities as well as the kinds of social relationships established between individuals and communities making up a society and constituting what is known as the social system. Social relationships can be very strong as is the case with small local communities like villages. But these relationships may also be secondary or merely economic governed by personal interests. The difference between simple relationships (as in local communities) and complex ones (as in urban conglomerations) is due to the difference in the origins of both communities. The local community is homogenous whereas the urban one is not either with respect to origins, culture, norms, traditions or values.

- Simple relationships in local communities may be a barrier to exploiting environment resources or to development, just as social obligations may be a stumbling block to renovations and change imposed by the process of development in these societies.

- The conflict⁽²⁶⁾ between aborigines and newcomers may be a hindrance to the development and exploitation of environment resources.

- The social position⁽²⁷⁾ of an individual imposes specific roles on him, and makes him shy other roles, the exercise of which might weaken his social position. Examples are  bedouins’ despise for agriculture and the Nubians’ shying away from trade jobs.

- To implement environment projects at the local level, we must comprehend the kinds of social relations existing between individuals and communities as well as the social systems relating them to each other. Moreover, it is important to win over the local traditional leaderships, given that they have strict knowledge of their local community and of the environmental incidents that have occured in it.

- Islam advocates a social system based on cohesion and symbiosis. The Prophet (PBUH) said «Muslims are like one body in their mutual friendship and mercy; should an organ complain all the others respond through vigil and fever.» (reported by Muslim N° 265) The Prophet also said : «A Muslim is to another Muslim like a firm edifice each one of them supports the other»⁽²⁸⁾. (reported by Muslim N° 446) Moreover, Islam has made the standard of righteousness as the basis for making differences between people. Allah said : «The most honored of you in the eyes of Allah is he who is the most righteous amongst you.» (Hujurat : 13). Islam also considered that every deed is beneficial as long as it rises production and is of benefit to the individual and to other human beings.

- We conclude from what has been said that the social implications of environmental issues must be taken into account when we are setting up development projects. We should also study the effects of development on the social environment of the population in a comprehensive manner; only in this way could we avoid many aspects of the devastation, the pollution and the bad exploitation of environment resources.

3. The Economic System

The economic system, in any society, determines the natural resources movements and the kinds of resources involved in these movements. It also determines such economic and social consequences as the rise of living standards, the environment depletion and alteration. The degree of environment change, like the increase in the dumping of wastes and of different pollutants, which contributes to environment devastation, is also determined by the economic system. In agricultural communities, the contribution of economic activities to environment deterioration is small in comparison with what takes place in developed communities. In fact, problems of earth, water and air pollution as well as other environmental crises are aggravated in developed societies. Figure 3 shows the movement of natural resources in the industrial economic system as well as the environment problems and hazards it causes. The degree and strength of environment hazards depend on the degree of development and progress as well as on the complexity of  the economic system.

Islam devised economic principles that are suitable to humans in their exploitation of natural resources. to human nature in the exploitation of economic resources. The Islamic economic system is based on the following considerations⁽²⁸⁾  :

1. Humans’ ownership of things. This has always been the case because they are Allah’s deputies on earth. Property can only be owned by virtue of a legal edict.

2. Forbidding the hoarding up of money. The state should ensure its circulations among all and not just a few people : «that it become not a commodity between the rich among you» (Al Hashr 7).

3. Private ownership of things is regulated by the five legal rules : work ; the need for money for survival ; the provision of money to people by the stare in order to meet their needs ; inheritance of laws ; interaction between individuals.

4. The right to spend individual property as regulated by the law especially with regard to monopoly and cheating.

5. Discoveries and inventions become public property when they are used by the community.

6. The state guarantees for everybody and ensures that they exercise their rights and fulfill their duties.

7. The state takes care of the unemployed and the poor ; it provides shelter for the old and the handicapped and provides health care for everyone. Islam has set up regulations for developing economic resources.

In the Field of Agriculture

Islam urges the cultivation of the soul. The prophet (PBUH) said : «He who brings back a land to life becomes its owner.» He also said : «He who settles in a land, nobody has a right to it except him.»⁽²⁹⁾

Islam makes sure the necessities of life are guanranteed before taking care of superfluous things. The necessities of life are summarized thus : «Nor to suffer frop thirst, nor from the sun’s heat» (Taha 118-119)

In the Field of Industry

Islam called for promoting it in a general manner (without getting  into specifics). Allah the almighty said about Soloman : «It was We Who taught him the making of coats of mail» (Anbiyaa 80). Allah taught Zul-qarnain his dams work : «Bring me blocks of iron. At lenght, when he had filled up the space between the two steep mountain-sides, he said, ‘Bring me, that I may pour over it, molten lead » (Kahf 96).

In the Field of Trade

Islam set up rules to regulate selling, buying, and loans. It encouraged trade and the fair exchange of goods. It warned against cheating in selling. the prophet said  : «Do not cheat in trade».⁽³⁰⁾ The Prophet also warned against monopolizing food : «Do not monopolize except whatever is wrong.»⁽³¹⁾ He also warned against swearing in selling : «Swearing spoils the merchandise and desecrates profit.»⁽³²⁾

In the Field of Tourism

Islam advocates tourism and travel to all the regions of the earth. Allah said : «Travel through the earth and see what was the end of those before (you)». (Rum :42). «Say travel through the earth and see how God did originate creation» (Ankabut : 20) «If God had so willed. He could have made you a single people» (Shura : 8) «And made you into nations and tribes, that you may know each other.» (Hujurat : 13)  

In the Field of Cattle Breeding and Shepherding

Islam encourages cattle breeding and shepherding. The Prophet even boasts of having been a shepherd. Abu Hurayra reported that the Prophet (PBUH) had said : «Every prophet that Allah sent down was a shepherd, then his companions asked ‘and you?’ and he retorted : ‘yes I used to graze it to the people of Mecca for a small amount of money (reported by El Bukari, Kitab Al Ijara’»⁽³³⁾.

Islam urges people to work and acquire wealth and means of subsistence. Allah said : «For you, so traverse ye through its tracts and enjoy of the sustenance which He furnishes» (Mulk : 15). In this verse, Allah gives priority to traversing through the tracts over the enjoyment of fruits to make us feel that work is a way of living in this life. The same meaning is conveyed in the following verse: «And seek the bounty of God» (Jumu’a : 10). The share of man in this world and in the hereafter depends on his work and efforts in life. Allah said : «That man can have nothing But what he strives for; That (the fruit of ) His striving will soon come in sight, Then will he be awarded with reward complete.» (Najm : 41). He also said : «And say: work (righteousness) soon will God observe your work, And His Apostle, and the believers» (Tauba : 105)

But Islam lays a fundamental condition for exercising any work in any economic activity whatsoever: doing no mischief on earth.

Allah said : «But seek, with the (wealth) which God has bestowed on thee, the Home of the Hereafter, nor forget thy portion in this world : but do thou good, as God has been good to thee, and seek not (occasions for) mischief in the land : for God loves not those who do mischief» (Qasas : 77)

4.The Cultural System

Since their appearance on earth, human beings have managed to set up environments that are different from the natural environment in an attempt to exploit the latter, and to satisfy thereby their need for self-preservation. Cultural systems are part of manmade environments. Culture includes knowledge, arts, morals, rules, customs and other skills that human beings acquire by virtue of their being members of society.

We can distinguish two types of culture: material culture, i.e. the output of technology which is considered an intermediary between human beings and the natural environment surrounding them. Technology has always been important for human existence and progress since the advent of mankind.

The second type of culture comprises all that is not material : traditions, norms and popular proverbs which reflect ideas and beliefs, or what is known as «popular demography»⁽³⁴⁾. A uniform culture prevails in society and comprises a host of general fundamental cultural features or elements known as cultural generalizations. These are: the unity of feelings, the unity of traditions, the norms and practices shared by individuals of the community such as rituals, religious beliefs, languages and the like features regarded as basically fundamental for the formation of society. These cultural generalizations are one of the important elements that ensure the cohesion of society. Moreover, each local community has its special sub-culture distinguishing it from the other communities. These are known as ‘special cultural traits’.⁽³⁵⁾ sThe latter should be taken into account when implementing development projects; otherwise, environmental resources will be wasted and development projects will not achieve their objectives.

The prevailing beliefs⁽³⁶⁾ play a major role in hindering development plans and in wasting environment resources. Examples abound. Individuals of ‘Bija’, a tribe in the east of Sudan, fought the mechanic tractors used by the government in tilling the earth in the area of Toko. They believe that tractors spoil the soil and lessen its fertility. The sanctification of cows by Hindus stands as an obstacle to any new type of culture advocating possible improvements in the exploitation of this animal wealth which could play an important role in Indian economy. 

Similarly, the " Zandi" - a group of tribes living in central Africa, did not abandon one of their traditional produces (Talboun),  in spite of the fact that the development plan in their society tended towards the generalization of " Pavra " growing as a substitute to it. This is because " Pavra " is easy to farm as a produce and to prepare as food. The resistance was due to the fact that they use “Talboun” in their rituals and magic practices. They also refuse to live in houses which are built in lines. They prefer instead to live in forests and far from the public road because they are not used to living in adjacent houses; they believe in the importance of living far from each other for fear of the evil eye and each others’ jealousy. Besides, they use mobile agriculture as their means of subsistence.

The wrong belief that the owl augurs bad omen badly affects the environmental balance. In truth, this bird hunts between 3 and 4 mice each night. It plays an important role in safeguarding the environmental balance. The same is true for spiders which are hated by many of us; they hunt more than the weight of 3 million men of harmful insects each year. Should spiders  disappear, these insects would have heavily devastated the components of life on this planet.

The same way that beliefs play a major role in hindering development and in the waste of resources, the prevailing tendencies and values in society⁽³⁷⁾ can play a big part in the destruction of the environment. Instead of raising awareness about the importance of preserving public property⁽³⁸⁾ sources and public funds, what we find a