21. Al-Biruni
(363-439H/973-1048AD)

Muhammad Ibn Ahmed Abu Raihan Al-Biruni al-Khawarizmi was born in the Persian region of Khwarizm (now in Uzbekistan) in 973 C.E. The date of his death is not known exactly, but most likely he is believed to have died in 1048. 

Al-Biruni’s interests included mathematics, natural science, astronomy, medicine, philosophy, religion, history, language and literature. But he is most known as a mathematician and astronomer. Eminent orientalists consider him as one of the most outstanding Arab and universal encyclopedic scholars(128). The historian George Sarton acknowledges Al-Biruni’s scientific prominence : “Al-Biruni was an outstanding traveller, philosopher, mathematician astronomer and geographer. He was one of the greatest encyclopedic Muslim scholars in all times”(129).

Little is known about Al-Biruni‘s family, childhood and first education. However, he is known to have received education from three teachers: Abu Nasr Ibn Iraq, Abu Sahl Ibn Yahya al-Massihi and Abu al-Hasan Ibn Ali al-Jabali. He is also known to have been a contemporary of the famous physician Ibn Sina and to have corresponded with him. Besides Arabic, he mastered Greek, Persian, Hebrew.

At the age of 25, Al-Biruni moved to Jorjan, where he joined the court of sultan Abu al-Hasan Kabus Ibn Washkamir. He went back to Khawarizm several years later and served under the patronage of Abi Abbas al-Mamun ibn al-Mamun, the last ruler in the Maâmuunid dynasty. When Mahmud Ghaznavi seized power in Kwharizm, he invited Al-Biruni to his court and took him along with him in his journeys to India several times(130). Al-Biruni is thought to have stayed in India for a long time and to have studied Indian culture, sciences and knowledge. He became, in this respect, the Arab scholar who learned the most of India’s history and sciences(131).

Scientific Contributions

Al-Biruni contributed in various fields of science. He made accurate calculations of latitude and longitude and discussed whether the earth rotated on its axis. He studied the specific weight and accurately determined the mass of eighteen varieties of metals and precious stones. He stated that the speed of light is immense as compared with the speed of sound. He also explained the working of natural springs and artesian wells by the hydrostatic principle of communicating vessels. His investigations included descriptions of unusual phenomena such as the Siamese twins(132).

In the first part of his "History of Mathematics", Smith considers al-Biruni as the most prominent mathematician of his time(133). Moreover, Al-Biruni was an outstanding astronomer. He studied the world’s configuration and the nature of stars. He elaborated a method to calculate the earth’s diameter. This method is known to Western scientists as the "al-Biruni Law". Al-Biruni described dawn, solar eclipse and other phenomena. He argued that the earth rotated on its axis. Furthermore, he was versed in trigonometry and did research on the trisection of angles(134).

Al-Biruni was known for scientific his objectivity, truthfulness and accurate research and observation.

Major works

Al-Biruni left more than 150 works, most of which were mentioned in his treatise known as "Al Fahrass". These works involve various fields, such as geography, mathematics and astronomy. Among his famous works:

-"Al-Athar al-Baqia fi al-Qurun al-Khalia" (Chronology of Ancient Nations): Al-Biruni discussed the Earth’s rotation on its axis and its flatness. He initiated the rules of drawing on plain earth surface. This book was translated by Edward Sachau into English and edited in London in 1789. "Al-Athar al-Baqia fi al-Qurun al-Khalia" was also translated into German and English in the 19th century.

-"Al-Qanun al-Masudi fi al-Hai'a wa al-Nujum" (The Mas'udi Canon) was written in 1030 AD upon the request of Mas'ud ibn Mohammad Ghaznawi. It contains 143 parts and discusses several subjects related to astronomy and mathematics. This book was printed in Haidarabad, India.

-"Tarikh al-Hind"  (A History of India) provides a detailed account of Al-Biruni’s study of Indian languages, sciences and cultures. Sachau translated it into English and was printed in London in 1887.

-"Al-Tafhim-li-Awail Sina'at al-Tanjim" (Elements of Astrology) deals with mathematics, geometry, algebra, numerals and astronomy. It was written in a question-answer model and illustrated with forms and figures.

In addition to this heritage, Al-Biruni wrote many treatises in geometry, numerals, astronomy, mechanical, medicine and chemistry. He corresponded with Ibn Sina and translated a number of books from Sanskrit into Arabic.

Al-Biruni’s works were translated into French, German and English and were edited in the 19th and 20th centuries.