| Introduction | Location | Espahan trougth the ages | Espahan's main civilisational characteristics and religious sites | Bibliography |

Espahan trougth the ages

The history of Espahan dates back to about five hundred years BC, when king Cyrus, first Achemenid king, invaded the kingdom of Lidya and established the first Persian empire. It was during his reign  that Zoroastrianism, religion founded by Zoroaster, first emerged.

Cuneiform writing was used in tablets recording events and registering transactions. Darius II was the last Achemenid king. He was vanquished by Alexander the Great before being assassinated by his own commanders. Darius actually witnessed, from the slope of Mount Kuh-e-Sofeh, south of Espahan, the battle that sealed his defeat.

The history of Espahan is closely linked to that of Iran.  Indeed, "Iran" and "Persia" are two words that stand for the same region though they are not exactly synonymous. When the Arian populations emigrated from their original settlement south of the Ural sea towards the high plateaus of the meridian part of the Caspian sea, they called their new dwelling "Iran" which means "the Arians' Settlement".

The history of ancient Iran is divided in three periods:

1) The pre-history era, starting about 100.000 years BC and ending at the beginning of the first millennium before the Christian era;

2) The proto-history period, covering about half of the first millennium before the Christian era; and

3) The period of the dynasties reigning from the VI to the IV centuries BC.

Palaeozoic Age: Archaeological excavations in Zagros, a mountain chain west of Iran, unearthed relics from this period dating back to about 100.000 years BC.

Modern Stone Age: All indicators point in the direction of the Middle-East as was one of the first regions of the ancient world to have experienced the modern Stone Age revolution. This revolution brought about an agricultural way of life marked by a rural sedentary lifestyle based on agriculture and cattle breeding. Finds from this era date back to the 8th and 7th millenniums before the Christian era. By 6000 B.C, this agrarian way of life had already spread to numerous Iranian regions.

Sixth and fifth millenniums B.C: There is little information on civilisation during this period as historians were more interested in focusing their research on the modern Stone Age and the primary periods, and on other evidence here and there of the existence of an important cultural and artistic evolution during the primary copper and bronze ages.

End of the 3rd millennium to the 2nd millennium B.C: If the beginning of this period is generally marked by a significantly more important isolation of the plateau than the previous period, the second half is clearly marked by exceptional clashes in the Iranian history but which paved the way for mutations in the Palaeozoic era. Thus, in the north and centre-west of Iran for example, indigenous local civilisations were compelled to a relative isolation caused by events that unfolded elsewhere.

The pre-Achemenid Period:

Since the year 8000 BC, the agricultural revolution induced the establishment of permanent settlements and the birth of prosperous civilisations, turning the Iranian plateau into the cradle of one of history's most ancient civilisations. In 3900 B.C, the city of Sialk (near Kachan), was the first city to be built on the Iranian plateau. Between 1500 and 800 B.C, the Medes and Persians, Arian nomads hailing from Central Asia, settled in the Iranian plateau. The Medes settled in the western part of Iran while the Persians chose the south. Placed under the authority of the Assyrians at first, they quickly liberated themselves from this rule, along with the Persians and eventually defeated the Assyrians.

The Achemenids:

In 550 B.C, Cyrus the Great founded the Persian Empire, first empire in the world.  Inherently a peaceful reign with moderate politics, Babylonia peacefully surrendered to Cyrus who was welcomed there in 539 B.C as a liberator. He freed the Jews from the Babylonian persecution before dying in 529 BC. The empire reached its apogee in 521 BC during the reign of king Darius. The empire was based on a system organised in Satrapies (similar to local governments and provinces). Darius built roads and ports, and established an underground irrigation system. His reign was equally marked by an economic boost, the introduction of the most ancient currency in the world, the darek, but also the standardization of weights and measures. He regulated commerce, favoured international trade and raised the economy of the Persian Empire to an unequalled degree of prosperity at the time.

Between 490 and 479 BC, the Hellenistic states were not a threat to the Persian Empire since Persia managed to achieve by means of diplomacy what it could not obtain by warfare. After the Greco-Persian wars, Persian kings managed to sow dissension between the peoples of Athens and Sparta, thus provoking wars that lasted for 150 years. Sparta vanquished Athens during the Great War, thanks to the financial and maritime support of Persia which subsequently offered its support to Athens. The Persian influence was indisputable, so much so that the two belligerents appealed to the Persian king Artaxerxes II for mediation and finally signed a peace treaty in 387 BC.

The Persian Empire was the world's hegemonic power for more than two centuries, from 550 to 334 BC. The continuous rapprochement between the west and the east was made possible thanks to the Persian Empire which was also the first world empire to be religiously tolerant. The empire was characterised by the diversity of its languages, ethnic groups, religions and cultures. Long before the advent of the Roman empire, Persia was the first to establish the predominance of the law, and create a centralised powerful army and an organised and efficient government.

From Alexander to the Parthians:

Alexander the Great of Macedonia invaded Persia during the reign of the Achemenids whom he vanquished in 323 BC. After defeating the Persian army, he ordered the execution of a number of Persians as well as the burning of Persepolis in retaliation against the burning of Athens. Alexander considered himself the successor of the Achemenid kings, imposing their customs to the Persian court while endeavouring to establish a new culture combining that combined the Persian with the Hellenistic.

Rivalry between his generals caused the division of his empire shortly after his death in 323 BC. However, his victory over the Persian empire left him with a legacy that he offered to the West in the form of a Persian model of the empire that was adopted, years later, by the Roman Empire, namely in the fields of law and the State of the law.

Seleucus I, one of Alexander's lieutenants, finally succeeded him and founded the Selucid state which lasted from 323 to 141 BC. The Seleucid territory included Asia Minor, the Greater Syria, Mesopotamia and Persia. The country had two capital cities. The one called Seleucia was founded on the Tigris in Mesopotamia, while Antioch, the second capital, was built on the Oronte River. Eighteen Selucid kings reigned.

The Parthians seized power between 247 and 224 BC. Also known under the name of Arsacids after their first king, theirs was a tribal kingdom formed by Sacid tribes from the north-east of Iran. The Arsacids defeated the Seleucids and conquered all of Persia. The founder of this empire was Arcases I, a name that was subsequently given to all Parthian kings following the example of Rome's Caesar. They waged numerous wars against the Romans, and their victory in 53 BC imposed them as a great power. However, and despite their lengthy reign of almost 5 centuries, they did not leave any significant vestiges of their civilisation, but for a few art relics.

The Sassanians:

Ardashir I introduced the reign of the Sassanians in 224 of the Christian era. After restoring the Persian civilisation in the Achemenid fashion, he instated Zoroastrianism and established commercial relations with his worst enemies, namely the Romans and Byzantines, as well as with China. Excavations carried out in China uncovered silver and gold coins dating back to the Sassanian era and that had been in use for many centuries. Ardashir was revered by the Iranians who considered him as the unifier of the Iranian nation, the champion of Zoroastrianism and the founder of the Pahlavi empire. His son, Shapur, succeeded him after his death in 240, and invaded the roman empire and captured the roman emperor Valerian in 260. He founded, inter alia, "the Shapur Soldier for Higher Education Centre", re-organised the empire, and built the Chester dam and numerous cities, including "Neh-Sapor" (present NiShapur). Hermes II, who sat on the Iranian throne from 301 to 310, was killed during a battle against the Arabs.

Khosrow I (Anushirvan) governed Iran from 531 to 579. Early in his reign, he crashed the Mazdean dissidence and ensured the stability of the country. Between 629 and 632, two sisters successively reigned on the Sassanian throne, Purandokht, daughter of Khosrow Perviz, and her sister Azarmedukht. The latter signed a peace treaty with Byzantium.

History of Espahan during the Islamic era:

The Muslims defeated the Persians during the Nahavand battle, hence putting an end to the Sassanian reign which lasted 416 years. During the Muslim conquest, the country was torn apart by numerous battles but also enjoyed periods of prosperity. The decline of the Abbasid caliphate at the end of the X century resulted in the emergence of local family dynasties. Thus, we find the Demavids, west of Iran, who in turn split into the Buyids and the Kakovids. It was only under the Umayyad dynasty (661-750) that the entire Iranian territory was subdued and the Arabic alphabet used in Persian writing. Between 750 and 1258, the Abbasids appointed Persian viziers in a number of state positions, causing a revival of Persian traditions within the Abbasid courts. As an example, let us mention the Persian Barmecide family of which the members held important ministerial functions in the state, hence playing a major role in the Abbasid political system. One should also indicate that it was during the Abbasid era that the Islamic nation reached its apogee.

Golden Age of the Persian Civilisation:

With the decline of Arab dominion in Persia, many local Persian kingdoms seized the power and founded tiny states such as the Taherids (821-873), the Saffarids (867-903), the Samanids (873¬999), the Zyarids (928-1007), and the Buyids (945-1055). Those were followed by Turkish families of Persian culture such as the Ghaznavids (962-1186), the Seljuks (1038-1153) and the Khwaramshah interlude (1153-1220). Once again, Persia became the centre of arts, literature and science. The Persians profoundly marked the advance of Islamic civilisation. The most eminent and renowned Muslim scholars and scientists shone during this period of history. These included the grammarian Sibawayh, Khawarizmi who excelled in astronomy and algebra, the physician Razi, the epic poet Al Firdawsi, the physician and philosopher Avicenna, the fundamentalist erudite Al Ghazali, the astrologist and poet Omar Al Khayyam, the poet Essaadi, the poet Hafiz, and many others.

When the Seljuks took the power after the defeat of sultan Mahmoud Ghaznavid's grand-son, patron of Al Firdawsi, their sultan Toghril Beg expanded his territory by conquering Iraq after securing his throne in Nishapur. His nephew, Khosrow, succeeded him in 455H/1063. The Seljuks further strengthened their state by defeating the Romans and the lands beyond Mesopotamia. (1) After the murder of Khosrow in 464H/1072, his son Malik Shah succeeded him (1072-1092), though it was his shrewd vizier, Nizam Melik, who was the actual master of state affairs. When the vizier was eighty, the sultan's wife, Turkan Khatun, commanded his assassination out of fear that he would prevent her son from succession on the throne. The murder was carried out by one of Hassan Sabah's men, chief of the Hachachine brigade. Shortly after, Malik Shah passed away. The following period witnessed a number of civil wars opposing his brother and four sons for accession to the throne. The conflict came to an end with the victory of Malik Shah's third son, Sanjar. The latter suffered many defeats before he was imprisoned by the Turkmenians bewteen 547H/1153 and 550H/1156. Meanwhile, his wife, Sultana Ateira, governed the country from the city of Khorasan. Sanjar, who managed to escape from jail, lived until the age of seventy three. His death was followed by forty years of civil war at the end of which Toghril III - who reunified the country-, was defeated in 589H/1193 during a battle against the governor of Khawarizm. His son, imprisoned by Genghis Khan, died in 626AH/1193AD. The kingdom was subsequently divided between various suzerains until Persia's invasion by Hulagu Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan, in 616AH/1230AD. Hulagu Khan conquered Baghdad in 656AH killing thousands of people, burning palaces, mosques, caliphs' mausoleums, the famous library of Baghdad, as well killing the last of the Abbasid caliphs. The Mongols moved on to Syria but were defeated by the Egyptians in the famous battle of Ain Jalout. They withdrew to Maragheh, northeast of Iran where they founded the Ilkhans dynasty.

It was under Ghazan Khan, grandson of Hulagu, that the Mongols witnessed their golden age in Iran. He was the first Mongol leader to convert to Islam. In Tabriz, the capital city, the court had a purely Islamic-Persian character. His era was marked by a shrewd administration and remarkable prosperity. The broad expansion of the Mongol empire fostered the exchange of ideas and goods between China, India and Persia. Uljaitu succeeded his brother Ghazan and ruled until his death in 1316. Uljaitu, who was baptised at birth as a Christian, subsequently embraced Islam choosing the name of Mohamed Khodabendeh. He built the city of Sultanya, near the Caspian sea, and established it as the Ilkhans' capital instead of Tabriz. It was during this era that the well-known optician Kamaluddin Farsi, author of the theory on deflection and reflection, emerged, in addition to the famous cantor and poet Shamseddin Hafez Shirazi, the most eminent literary figure of the time, renowned for his "Compilation of Shirazian Poetry". In 1405, the turkish Moghol Tamerlane (or Timur Lang) invaded and conquered all of Persia, subdued Damascus and Aleppo, and established his capital city in Samarqand. However, despite the brutality, destruction and barbary characterising his conquests, he too great interest in arts, converting Samarqand into an architectural masterpiece.

The Safavid Dynasty (1501-I524):

With the Safavids the city started to enjoy its golden age at the end of the XVIIth century. It was adorned and embellished by its successive leaders, particularly Shah Abbas the Great, and its reputation spread widely in the civilised world. The Safavid Kings reigned for a century and a half, establishing their capital in Espahan. The name of the city was associated with Safiyeddine El-Ardabili, a traditional Sufi leader and follower of the Shafiite doctrine. However, it was Ismael Mirza, or Shah Ismael I, who founded Espahan after conquering Tabriz and defeating the tribes occupying it to establish it as his capital. He then instated the duodecimal Jaafarite Shiism as the official state doctrine, using all his might to impose this doctrine in the entire Iranian territory.

His son Tahmasb I finished the work of his father. However, instead of violence and oppression, he opted for a style based on persuasion and convincing to spread his doctrine. Wars raged for years between the Shiite Safavids and the Sunni Ottomans; but it appears that external pressures on the Safavids, whether from the Ottomans in the west or the powerful Uzbek tribes in the East, only contributed to the unification of Iran and the people's decision to support the Safavid kings and the Shiite doctrine. Shah Abbas (1587-1629) established the capital of the Safavid state in Espahan which became a remarkable civilisational centre in various fields of science, arts, architecture and literature. This period was marked by the development of Iran's relations with Europe as well as an increase in the number of ambassadors to the court.

In 1722, Mahmud Khan, head of an Afghan tribe, invaded Persia and conquered Espahan without any resistance, thus putting an end to the Safavid dynasty. Between 1729 and 1747, Nadir Qoli, known as Nadir Shah, sat on the Iranian throne and founded the Afshari dynasty. He defeated the Afghans, Ottomans, Russians and Indians, and unified the country. However, it was not long before his kingdom was torn apart after his assassination by one of his guards, bringing about the collapse of its war machine. Between 1747 and 1779, Karim Khan Zand managed to resist the Qajar and dominate the centre and south of Iran. His attention was mainly focused on his capital Shiraz.

The Qajar (GHAJAR) Dynasty:

The Qajars were one of the seven tribes that had supported the Safavid kings. Their chief, Agha Mohammad Khan, managed to unify the branches of his tribe using violence and pogrom. As his power increased, he conquered Tehran which became the capital of his kingdom. With the expansion of European colonialism, the British and Russians started to meddle into Iran's domestic affairs.

Consequently, the Qajars lost the Caucasus (present Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan) to Russia in two separate treaties, namely the treaty of Golestan in 1813, and the treaty of Torkmanchai in 1828. The Qajars were forced to promulgate the law of foreigners' privileges by virtue of which all foreign citizens were spared from appearing before Iranian courts. Until the beginning of the XXth century, Iran was torn between the conflicting interests of Russia and Great Britain. On the one hand, Russia founded its strategy on the principle of expansion in Asia with the purpose of securing a port in the lukewarm waters of the Gulf. On the other hand, Great Britain strived to dominate the Gulf and all the territories adjacent to India.

Mohammad Shah, grandson of Ali Shah, governed between 1834 and 1848. During his reign, Russia tried to gain Iran's friendship so as to strengthen its domination on the Caucasian states and Turkmenistan. The lengthy reign of his son Nasseredin Shah was characterised by his good relations with Russia, provoking the ire of Great Britain which declared war on Iran. With Russia unable to assist Iran, Nasseredin Shah was compelled to surrender. The signature of the treaty of Paris in 1858, by virtue of which Iran recognises the independence of Afghanistan, granted Great Britain privileges and commercial rights in Iran. The British Baron Reuter obtained from Nasser Shah the right for his country to build railways and roads, as well as the exploitation of mineral and oil resources for a period of seventy years. The treaty also granted Great Britain the right to supervise customs activities for twenty-four years. The constitutional revolution of 1906, led by some theologians and youngsters, prompted the establishment of the first parliament which took it upon itself to address the numerous problems facing the country.

(1) (NDT) Corresponding currently to Georgia, Armenia and part of Asia minor.