| Introduction | Location | Espahan trougth the ages | Espahan's main civilisational characteristics and religious sites | Bibliography |

Compared to other cities in the Islamic Republic of Iran, Espahan was characterised throughout the ages by the diversity of its civilisational attributes and religious sites. Let us review some of its main civilisational characteristics and religious sites:

I- MOSQUES

The Djame Mosque

Muslim conquerors built the Djame Masjed in Espahan in 23AH/644AD when they triumphed over the city. At first, it was just a small mosque that was destroyed and rebuilt many times until the advent of the Seljuks who rebuilt it as it stands today. Of the original mosque, only the facades were kept. The faience tiles, the domes and minarets adorning the mosque were built at a later date. Built in stone and bricks, the prayer hall is made up of 4 iwans (barrel vaulted ceremonial hall with an open façade spanning all its height).

The present construction dates back to the time of Sultan Malik-Shah (464AH/1072 - 484H/1092AD) who had the splendid dome erected in 470AH/1080AD. Between 702AH/1303AD and 7I5AH/1316AD, Sultan Uljaitu Mohamed Khodabendeh expanded the mosque considerably, tasking his vizier Mohammad Safi to build the niche (mihrab), one of the most beautiful mihrabs of Iran, and embellish it with mosaic and faience.

Shah Abbas Mosque

The Shah Abbas mosque is one of the most prestigious monuments of Islamic architecture in Espahan. Overlooking the Shah Abbas Meidan from the south, this mosque is considered one of the benchmarks of the Safavid era. Combining aesthetics with the grandeur of Islamic architecture, its facades, both internal and external, are covered with mosaic arabesques of dazzling colours. Two elegant minarets, about 33 meters-high, flank the entrance from both sides. Its azure blue cupola embellished with mosaic is 27 meters-high. If the perfectly angled quadrilateral lines of the edifice are in contrast with the circumference of its back dome, they nonetheless preserve the refined proportions and remain in harmony with the two slender minarets erected upwards as if in a self-directional movement. Its huge blue cupola is set on a circular base and sports a wealth of calligraphic and ornamental engravings. The prayer gallery is laid out in the iwans system, not the pavilions one, and the central iwan, facing the qibla, holds the niche. The parvis of the mosque (external courtyard) opens up on all the porches and the one leading to the prayer hall is covered with faience tiles.

Shah Sultan Hussein Mosque, known as "Nader Shah"

The Shah Sultan mosque, known as "Nader Shah", is among the most stunning constructions built by Iranian architects in 1008AH/1600AD. The mosque has a prayer hall with a huge overhanging dome considered one of the most stunning mosque domes. The oblong parvis is surrounded by two-level iwans. The lateral iwans open onto each other through small patios, some square, others oblong, overlooking lodgings rooms and devotion cubicles.

The Parsian Mosque

This mosque is located in Parsia, located 42 kilometres north-east of Espahan. It is an architectural complex containing an ancient minaret, a Seljuk mosque, as well as a residence built by Shah Abbas I. Generally, such residences used to be an extension of the mosque. At the top of its front facade, the mosque offers an impressive architectural style. The construction of the 34 meters-high minaret dates back to 490 AH/1097AD or during the reign of Barkiarok, son of Malik Shah.

Dashti Mosque

This mosque was named after the village Dashti where it is located on the road linking Espahan to Ziar. The history of this mosque dates back to the XI or XII century. The great simplicity that characterises this edifice is one the main factors facilitating the understanding of the architectonic process used in its construction. Furthermore, its small size and its easy access to tourists make possible a better understanding of the method used in the laying of metal sheeting around its circumference.

The Friday Mosque

The foundations of the southern arcade of the Friday Mosque were laid in the beginning of the XII century by order of vizier Nizamuddin. Uzon Hassan Beg Aguyonlu had the terrace built in 879-880AH/1475-176AD, adding to it two new minarets. The marble and faience ornaments inside the Iwan date back to the time of Uzon Hassan. Tanmasp Shah brought numerous modifications to the mosque. At the north-eastern angle of the mosque, there is a spot called "Omar's attribute".

Inside the mosque, there are places for praying and others for learning. The construction of this part dates back to the XIV century with a display of superb faience ornaments, especially the arch that overlooks the entrance of the prayer hall, unique with its two types of engraving, both of incomparable beauty.

In the XVIII century, Sultan Hussein Shah restored its western iwan, covering the original brick edifice which was devoid of any ornament with an abundance of amazing adornments and engravings. The niche (mihrab) was however left out in this restoration. The architect had a plate of enamelled bricks built, the conception of which is an indication of the traditional artistic trend they represent. This traditional trend exalts the Omnipotent name "Allah", written in the Kufi calligraphy style, represented by four vertical lines and a square. The style of arched and intertwined ornamental shapes, dating back to the XII century, was introduced by Suleiman Shah in 1180AH/I689AD. The pond at the centre of the mosque is a startling example of the type of construction called Techha Tak. The Friday Mosque is a perfect illustration of the quintessence of four centuries of Persian architecture, easily perceived in the small area of the mosque, and which combines a plethora of ornamental materials that distinguish it from the city's other monuments and sites.

The Imam Mosque

The Imam's mosque, built during Abbas Shah's reign, is a genuine architectural masterpiece dazzling with splendour and beauty. The mosque's minarets are 48 meters-high. To the east, one can see the Lotfollah mosque with its flattened dome.

II- THE PALACES

Espahan is known for the significant number of palaces that date back to the Safavid era. These palaces vary in conception as well as in splendour. The following are the main palaces that the city of Espahan boasts:

Ali Ghapu Palace

The Ali Ghapu palace is located west of the Naqsh-e-Djahan square. Built by the Safavids, this palace was meant to receive ambassadors and envoys from foreign countries. It has six floors and a myriad of patios. The plaster ornaments and the frescos in this palace are dazzling. The visitor of the Ali Ghapu palace can marvel at its lavish decorations, engravings, ornaments and drawings both on the walls and on the ceilings.

The Hacht Behecht Palace

The Hacht Behecht palace (the palace of the eight paradises) is located in the vicinity of the

Tchahar Bagh avenue, at the intersection of the present Sheikh Bahai avenue, and was built in the XV century during the reign of Shah Suleiman II. The visit of this palace is a must considering its splendid inlaid ceilings and its wall paintings.

The Royal Palace

The royal palace is situated in the centre of Espahan, on the south-eastern part of a huge esplanade previously called Meidane Shah, meaning the big portico. Its superb entrance was supposed to symbolize the grandeur of the then ruling Safavid king, as is clearly indicated on the plates hanging on the platform. The name of the esplanade was changed to Meidan-e-Imam, but the palace never stopped mesmerizing the eyes by its magnificence.

The platform was an ideal spot to attend polo matches held on the square. Various plaster paintings decorate the back part with floral ornaments on the ceiling. The columns, similar to those of Tchehel Sotoun, are covered by mirrors the reflection of which gives the impression of an air floating ceiling. The columns originate from the same trees used to build the Tchehel Setoun's. The lower floors did not benefit from as much flourish because they were restricted to the guards. The narrowing of the tight staircase leading to both the lower and upper floors ensured the security of the upper floors' rooms. The inside of the building was adorned with frescos representing scenes of nature, birds and other shapes designed with great virtuosity.

The Forty-Column Palace

The history of the Tchehel Sotoun, more known as the forty-column palace, dates back to the seventh Safavid king, Shah Abbas II. According to archaeological studies, it was built in 1057 AH. The columns are pillars made up of tree branches coated with thin colourful layers. The palace's walls are covered with mirrors, multicoloured stained glass as well as an assortment of sketches and drawings. This palace is considered one of the most beautiful palatial creations built by the Safavids in Espahan. The palace is named after its columns spread in three rows of six columns each, in addition to two more columns at the entrance. But their reflection on the palace's surrounding pool makes them appear as though there were forty of them.

III- THE BRIDGES

Shahrestan Bridge

The Shahrestan Bridge was built in the XIV century, east of Espahan. It is located at the junction of the Shahrestan village at the south east with the rural region on the Mediterranean bank. The building of this bridge was inspired from the Romans. The arches supporting it were designed to protect the barges from the Zayandesh river swellings. Piers were placed in parallel to the direction of the swellings to reduce the intensity of the whirlpools that erode the lateral metal sheets. True to the Roman style, the bridge contains secondary canals stretching along the whole length of the main arches' incline, in such a way as to process the largest volumes of water. Furthermore, to avoid the risks of collapse owed to potentially severe swellings going through the upper level towards the narrowest parts, additional canals were dug to drain the waters, passing through the secondary canals to meet with the main canals where the volume of water is supposed to be less important considering their larger size.

Pol Si-o-Seh Bridge

The Pol Si-o-Seh Bridge is made up 33 arches. In 1010H/1602, Shah Abbas I commissioned one of his commanders to build it. The name Pol Si-o-Seh stems from the Persian phrase Si-o-Seh meaning thirty three. The bridge was built on a certain number of enormous spans (see photo 2).

F'ol -e Khadj u Bridge ( Khadj u Bridge)

The Pol-e Khadju bridge was built between 1051H/1642 and 10777H/1667 during the reign of Shah Abbas II. It is named after the "Khadju" district, on the northern bank of the Zayandeh river, linking the northern and the southern banks. The bridge's adornments, inspired by those of Pol Si-o-Seh, also have two levels. However, contrary to the Pol Si-o-Seh, it was expanded and developed in may areas (photo 3).

The bridge has a length of 110 meters, and its width slightly exceeds 20 meters on most part of its span. On the eastern side, the bridge comprises a huge sluice gate that brings the water up to a level of 2 meters, thus creating a useful basin used in the irrigation of the agricultural fields surrounding it through an intricate network of canals. By way of a staircase, the lower part of the bridge, made up of 20 arches, leads to the upper part containing pavilions that provide passers-by with a meeting and gathering spot. The bridge is unique thanks to its arcades, vestibules as well as the incomparable roof tiles and arches that adorn the upper areas and lower parts contained between the arches' support, especially the central cavities. Previously, the bridge was named after the commander who was in charge of its building, "Lahved-e Khan". Above the bottom part of the thirty three-arches, there is a second floor with an arch on top of each support, and two arches above each arcade. Thus, the bridge's shape corresponds to its name on the one hand, and on the other hand embodies perfect balance and harmony. At the top, the path is surrounded by high walls that provide shelter from the wind and protect the passers-by from being run-over by cars using the bridge.

IV- QURANIC SCHOOLS (MEDERSAS)

The medersas were the beating heart of the intellectual movement that characterised Iran during the Buyid reign. The Shahar Bagh Medersa, built in 1173AH/1760AD, is the most prominent theology school. With a magnificent blue cupola beset in colours, it has two floors with an accommodation capacity of up to 160 students, future mullahs. The facade of one of the entrances is a masterpiece of Persian engravings and ornaments. Also a mosque, Shahar Yagh was a royal medersa founded by the Safavid Shah Hussein in 1134AH/1722AD. Its dome and minarets are most exquisite architectural pieces of Islamic civilisation in terms of coating in mosaic tiles, arabesque-adorned ceramics and calligraphy.

V- SQUARES (MEIDANS)

The following stand out among the main squares in Espahan:

Shah "Meidan Emam" Square

Meidan Shah or Meidan Emam is 500 meters-long and 135 meters-wide. It is an oblong esplanade surrounding a vast lake-sized pool. The Ali Ghapu Palace, residence of Shah Abbas, is located in one of its sides. It is an immense seven-storey building with a spiral staircase designed to hide the route to a potential escape. All the walls are decorated with gilded and colourful engravings. On the second floor, there is a wooden platform (talar) supported by adorned beams. In the centre lies an elegant pool the water of which was brought via pipes from the heights of a mountain in the city outskirts. Meidan Shah or Meidan Emam is one of Espahan's main tourism attractions. One can see the Imam Mosque from the other side (Photo 5)

VI- GARDENS

The most famous among Espahan's renowned gardens is the one built by Shah Abbas II near the ballroom area of the Forty-Columns Palace. Indeed, this area contains a garden of 26 feddan (1 feddan equals 4200 square meters). This edifice still exits today and is surrounded by century-old trees covering a large part of the original garden. The vast platform of the palace overlooks an immense pool reflecting the image of the many columns. On the upper floor of the huge ballroom, there is an abundance of paintings and frescos showing Abbas Shah in banquets, Ismael Shah as well as Shar Tahmasp receiving Humayun, King of India. The walls of the other rooms are adorned with miniatures and other paintings produced by the most distinguished painters of the time.

VII- MARKETS (THE SOUKS)

The old souks are among Espahan's main attractions. One can mention as an example the Kisseria Souk. The old souk already existed in the area of the Friday mosque. This souk was enlarged by the construction of a commercial area north of the main square it adjoins. The entrance of the souk, rebuilt in 1028 AH/ 1619AD, is called Kisseria.